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Is retrograde amnesia associated with an ability to know who we are and imagine what we will be like in the future? To answer this question, we had S.G., a patient with focal retrograde amnesia following hypoxia, two brain-damaged (control) patients with no retrograde memory deficits, and healthy controls judge whether each of a series of trait adjectives was descriptive of their present self, future self, another person, and that person in the future, and later recognize studied traits among distractors. Healthy controls and control patients were more accurate in recognizing self-related compared to other-related traits, a phenomenon known as the self-reference effect (SRE). This held for both present and future self-views. By contrast, no evidence of (present or future) SRE was observed in SG, who concomitantly showed reduced certainty about his personality traits. These findings indicate that retrograde amnesia can weaken the self-schema and preclude its instantiation during self-related processing.

IntroductionComing out as gay can be a psychologically challenging event, and recall of a negative coming out experience can initiate subsequent identity changes in gay men. We tested whether baseline levels of identity resilience and internalized homonegativity moderate these effects.MethodsA between-participant experimental study, with an ethnically diverse sample of 333 gay men in the United Kingdom (UK), examined levels of contemporaneous identity threat of reflecting upon recollections of either a coming out experience that had a negative or a stabilizing effect on self-schema. Data were collected in 2020 and analyzed using multiple regression and path analysis.ResultsPath analysis showed that a model predicting level of identity threat after recall of a negative coming out experience fitted the data well. Identity resilience was negatively correlated with internalized homonegativity and distress during memory recall. Both distress and homonegativity correlated positively with identity threat. The relationship between recalling a negative coming out experience and distress was mediated by the perceived typicality of the recalled experience.ConclusionsThrough its effects on distress and internalized homonegativity, identity resilience reduces the threatening effect of recollecting a negative coming out experience upon contemporary identity.Policy ImplicationsOffering gay men awareness of the social and psychological routes to raising identity resilience may be beneficial in reducing internalized homonegativity and the ongoing effects of remembered negative coming out experiences.

Drawing on the perceived organizational membership theoretical framework and the social identity view of dissonance theory, I examined in this study the dynamics of the relationship between psychological contract breach and organizational identification. I included group-level transformational and transactional leadership as well as procedural justice in the hypothesized model as key antecedents for organizational membership processes. I further explored the mediating role of psychological contract breach in the relationship between leadership, procedural justice climate, and organizational identification and proposed separateness—connectedness self-schema as an important moderator of the above mediated relationship. Hierarchical linear modeling results from a sample of 864 employees from 162 work units in 10 Greek organizations indicated that employees' perception of psychological contract breach negatively affected their organizational identification. I also found psychological contract breach to mediate the impact of transformational and transactional leadership on organizational identification. Results further provided support for moderated mediation and showed that the indirect effects of transformational and transactional leadership on identification through psychological contract breach were stronger for employees with a low connectedness self-schema.

BackgroundOvergeneral categoric memory is known as a vulnerability factor for depression, yet increased retrieval of categoric memories among depressed individuals has been observed in voluntary but not involuntary retrieval tasks. Here we propose that, increased categoric memory occurs during involuntary memory tasks when cued by schema-related stimuli, which tend to activate dysfunctional and negative self-schema in depression.MethodsA vigilance task measuring involuntary memory was administered to 27 dysphoric, 26 past depressed, and 27 healthy control participants. Participants also responded to several questions measuring each memory characteristic (e.g., evoked emotion) and a dysfunctional schema scale.ResultsResults supported the hypothesis that dysphoric and past depressed groups reported more involuntary categoric memories for schema-related (particularly negative) stimuli relative to a healthy control group. Dysfunctional schema score was positively correlated with the number of involuntary categoric memories retrieved following schema-related negative stimuli. Involuntary categoric memory for schema-related stimuli was related to negative evoked emotion, and dysphoric participants experienced more negative emotion in response to positive stimuli.Discussion and ConclusionThese findings suggest that schema-based involuntary categoric memory may be vulnerable to the persistence and relapse of depression.

BackgroundLittle is known about how self-schemas are formed, fluctuate, and are reinforced. In this study, we used a revised mnemic neglect paradigm to examine how self-schema fluctuates following episodic events (feedback) and its self-concordance.MethodsParticipants exhibiting various depressive symptoms (BDI-II ranging from 1 to 36; M = 11.90) underwent psychological testing, followed by bogus feedback regarding their personality, future, and behavioural traits, where they rated their state self-schemas and feedback self-concordance trial-by-trial.Results and ConclusionsLinear mixed models showed that feedback self-concordance was determined by the interaction between self-schema and the emotional valence of the feedback, and the self-schema fluctuated with the interaction between prediction error (the difference between the emotional valence of the feedback and current self-schema) and feedback self-concordance. Cognitive reactivity, the ease of responding to negative moods, was associated with higher parameters regressed onto self-schema and self-concordance regardless of the feedback valence, indicating that it enhances the likelihood of self-schema fluctuation positively and negatively. The simulation of self-schema development shows that some individuals developed a negative self-schema even after experiencing many positive events; these parameters were characteristic of individuals with high levels of cognitive reactivity. These results have significant implications for self-schema development and depression.

Many individuals who experience nonconsensual sexual experiences (NSEs) do not identify their experiences with common sexual violence labels (e.g., sexual assault, rape, or abuse), and cognitive mechanisms of identification have yet to be examined. Identification may involve the integration of the experience into sexual self-schemas, which would have implications for sexual well-being. Women were recruited through Amazon’s Mechanical Turk ( N  = 818) to take part in an anonymous online study of sexual experiences. The current study assessed the relationship between textually derived sexual self-schemas and sexual function (measured by the Female Sexual Function Index) in women ( M  = 35.37 years, SD  = 11.27) with NSEs who both did (identifiers, n  = 305) and did not (non-identifiers, n  = 176) identify with common sexual violence labels, in comparison with those with no NSEs ( n  = 337). Text analyses revealed nine sexual self-schema themes in participants’ essays: Virginity, Openness, Erotophilia, NSEs, Romantic, Sexual Activity, Warmth, Relationships, and Reflection. Analyses demonstrated that identifiers reported significantly poorer sexual functioning and less use of both the Warmth and Openness themes than those with no NSEs. Identifiers also invoked the NSE theme more frequently than both those with no NSE histories and non-identifiers. While greater prominence of the Warmth theme was predictive of greater sexual functioning for both non-identifiers and those with no NSEs, this was not true for identifiers. Instead, the NSE theme was significantly predictive of lower sexual functioning in identifiers. The results suggest that NSE identification may result in greater internalization of the NSE into one’s sexual self-schema and, in turn, predict decrements in sexual functioning. The results are discussed in relation to identification interpretation and clinical intervention.

Sexual self-schemas (SSSs) are cognitive generalizations about one’s sexual aspects. The aim of this study was to explore the possible effects of intimate partner violence (IPV) and the sexual myths about sexual behavior or roles on women’s sexual self-schemas. The research had a cross-sectional and observational design. Fifty women from a psychiatry outpatient clinic between the ages of 18–50 were given the Sexual Self-Schema Scale, sexual myths questionnaire, Beck Depression Inventory, Beck Anxiety Inventory, Golombok-Rust Inventory of Sexual Satisfaction, and Domestic Violence Against Women Scale. A significant relationship was found between the duration of marriage (years) and “Direct/Outspoken” schema ( p  = .020, r  = 0.29). This schema was also correlated with emotional ( p  = .037, r = − 0.29), total violence score ( p  = .028, r = − 0.27), and sexual myth score ( p  = .033, r  = 0.26). After the regression analysis, it was observed that the effect of emotional violence and sexual myth score on the “Direct/Outspoken” schema remained significant. Correcting sexual myths through sexual education can make women’s SSSs into positive way. In addition, interventions can be made to increase SSSs positively in women exposed to IPV. It is recommended that clinicians take a holistic approach by questioning the sexual functions and schemas of women in addition to IPV in women who experience it and have depression or anxiety disorders. As a policy implication, education about women’s rights and sexuality should also be given. Adequate psychological support should be provided to reduce the impact of IPV on SSS.

PurposeDrawing on the gender self-schema theory, upper echelons theory and the literature on international business, this study aims to examine the impact of board gender diversity on firms' internationalization speed.Design/methodology/approachIn this study, secondary data of 886 listed Chinese manufacturing firms from 2009 to 2018 are studied using the ordinary least squares regression model as the baseline method, an instrumental variable method is adopted for endogeneity control and both fixed and random effect models are adopted for the robustness test.FindingsBoard gender diversity reduces firms' internationalization speed, and the negative effect between board gender diversity and internationalization speed is stronger when the average age of female directors is older and weaker when female directors have international experience or financial background.Practical implicationsFirst, Chinese firms need to increase or decrease board gender diversity to match the board to firms' internationalization strategy. Increasing board gender diversity may be a more appropriate choice for firms that are expanding rapidly internationally, and vice versa. Second, when introducing female directors to international firms, it is essential to address other characteristics of these directors beyond their gender.Originality/valueFirst, the authors contribute to the literature on board gender diversity using Chinese manufacturing firms as our research sample, which provides new insights into the economic consequences of increasing the number of female directors. Second, this research contributes to the literature on firms' internationalization speed. Third, the authors capture in more detail the economic consequences of increasing board gender diversity in the context of China.

It is a matter of public concern that the risk of nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) is high among vocational college students. The benefits and barriers model of NSSI considers childhood trauma an important vulnerability factor that influences NSSI through negative self-schema. Therefore, exploration of possible protective factors is necessary to inform NSSI interventions. We investigated the potential protective function of Chinese cultural beliefs about adversity and whether negative self-schema mediates the connection between childhood trauma and NSSI. Questionnaires were completed by 898 vocational college students aged 18â-\"23 years. The results indicated that childhood trauma directly predicted NSSI and also indirectly predicted NSSI via negative self-schema. Additionally, Chinese cultural beliefs about adversity, as a vulnerability protective factor, moderated the relationship between childhood trauma and NSSI (i.e., the first half of the mediation effect). Thus, a self-schema and adversity belief-based intervention can help to prevent NSSI behavior among vocational college students.

Although sexuality is an important aspect of peoples’ health and well-being, many people—professionals and patients alike—find sexuality uncomfortable to discuss. In Arab culture, certain sexual thoughts and behaviors are taboo, particularly for women, and it is not known whether an interview in which Arab American women disclose their sexuality to a health professional would be well-received and beneficial or upsetting and harmful. This experimental study tested whether engaging in a disclosure-oriented sexual health interview affects Arab American women’s sexual and psychological health. A sample of 134 Arab American women, ages 18–35 years ( M  = 20.6), completed self-report measures of sexual health and attitudes and psychological symptoms, and then were randomized to an interview or control (waitlist) condition. The 60-min disclosure interview inquired about sexual attitudes, experiences, and conflicts. Five weeks later, all participants completed follow-up measures. Post-interview reports suggest that participants responded favorably to the interview and generally benefited from participation. Analyses of covariance (controlling for baseline levels of the outcome measure) indicated that the interview led to significantly greater sexual satisfaction and less discomfort with sexual self-disclosure at 5-week follow-up, compared to controls; the two conditions did not differ on follow-up sexual self-schema, sexual self-esteem, or psychological symptoms. Moderation analyses revealed that participation in the interview differentially improved the sexual self-schema of women with no past sexual experience, compared to women with sexual experience. These experimental findings suggest the value, rather than the risk, of clinicians encouraging Arab American women to openly disclose and discuss their sexual experiences and attitudes in a confidential, empathic setting.