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Approximately 0.6% of the U.S. population identifies as transgender. Depending on patient preference, treatment may involve hormone therapy (testosterone in transgender men, estrogens and androgen-lowering agents in transgender women), surgery customized to patient goals, and fertility preservation.

Incidence and prevalence of applications in Sweden for legal and surgical sex reassignment were examined over a 50-year period (1960–2010), including the legal and surgical reversal applications. A total of 767 people (289 natal females and 478 natal males) applied for legal and surgical sex reassignment. Out of these, 89 % (252 female-to-males [FM] and 429 male-to-females [MF]) received a new legal gender and underwent sex reassignment surgery (SRS). A total of 25 individuals (7 natal females and 18 natal males), equaling 3.3 %, were denied a new legal gender and SRS. The remaining withdrew their application, were on a waiting list for surgery, or were granted partial treatment. The incidence of applications was calculated and stratified over four periods between 1972 and 2010. The incidence increased significantly from 0.16 to 0.42/100,000/year (FM) and from 0.23 to 0.73/100,000/year (MF). The most pronounced increase occurred after 2000. The proportion of FM individuals 30 years or older at the time of application remained stable around 30 %. In contrast, the proportion of MF individuals 30 years or older increased from 37 % in the first decade to 60 % in the latter three decades. The point prevalence at December 2010 for individuals who applied for a new legal gender was for FM 1:13,120 and for MF 1:7,750. The FM:MF sex ratio fluctuated but was 1:1.66 for the whole study period. There were 15 (5 MF and 10 MF) regret applications corresponding to a 2.2 % regret rate for both sexes. There was a significant decline of regrets over the time period.

Key Points Gender-confirming surgery is becoming a more frequently encountered procedure for urologists, plastic surgeons, and gynaecologists Female-to-male gender-confirming surgery consists of facial masculinization, chest masculinization, body contouring, and genital surgery Metoidioplasty (hypertrophy with systemic hormones and mobilization of the clitoris with urethroplasty) can produce a sensate microphallus Phalloplasty can produce an aesthetic and sensate phallus with ability to micturate in a standing position and engage in penetrative sexual intercourse if proper nerve coaptation and prosthetic insertion are performed Urethral complications following genital surgery in transmen are generally higher than 30% and include urethral fistulas and strictures; revisional urethroplasty can address most urethral complications following genital surgery Advances in basic sciences, transgender-specific prostheses, and patient-reported outcomes will continue to offer options for improvements in gender-confirming surgery Gender transition can substantially improve quality-of-life in individuals with gender dysphoria, and various surgical options are available for female-to-male (FtM) transition, including facial and chest masculinization, body contouring, and genital surgery. In this Review, the authors describe the management of these patients, with a particular emphasis on the surgical techniques used, and consider developments that might improve outcomes for FtM patients in the future. Gender dysphoria is estimated to occur in approximately 25 million people worldwide, and can have severe psychosocial sequelae. Medical and surgical gender transition can substantially improve quality-of-life outcomes for individuals with gender dysphoria. Individuals seeking to undergo female-to-male (FtM) transition have various surgical options available for gender confirmation, including facial and chest masculinization, body contouring, and genital surgery. The World Professional Association for Transgender Health guidelines should be met before the patient undergoes surgery, to ensure that gender-confirming surgery is appropriate and indicated. Chest masculinization and metoidioplasty or phalloplasty are the most common procedures pursued, and both generally result in high levels of patient satisfaction. Phalloplasty, with a resultant aesthetic and sensate phallus along with implantable prosthetic, can take upwards of a year to accomplish, and is associated with a considerable risk of complications. Urethral complications are most frequent, and can be addressed with revision procedures. A number of scaffolds, implants, and prostheses are now in development to improve outcomes in FtM patients.

Metoidioplasty denotes the creation of a neophallus out of the hormonally hypertrophied clitoris. Construction of an esthetically acceptable male-like genitalia while enabling micturition in standing position are the primary goals. Herein, we aim to review the literature regarding masculinizing gender-affirming genital surgery in the form of metoidioplasty, focusing on the steps related to urethral lengthening and reconstruction, and describe the authors’ preferred surgical technique. Clitoral release, division of the urethral plate, native urethral lengthening with anterior vaginal wall flap, and neourethral tubularization using a combination of buccal mucosa graft and labia minora flap(s) seem to provide the best result in terms of urinary outcomes. This is reflected in a greater urethral length, higher probability of standing micturition, and lower incidence of fistula. Urethral complications, which can be encountered in up to 15% of the patients, may necessitate additional procedures. Some of the studies have reported successful penetrative intercourse following metoidioplasty. Case series about different metoidioplasty techniques do not allow head-to-head comparison due to non-standardized reporting and outcome assessment. Metoidioplasty can be offered to transgender men with sufficiently hypertrophied clitoris who wish to avoid a complicated, multistage, flap-based total phalloplasty, or for those individuals considering phalloplasty at a later date.

BackgroundCurrently available patient-reported outcome measures are limited in the field of sex reassignment surgery (SRS). Standardized questionnaires deliver high evidence data on satisfaction of male-to-female (MTF) transgender patients but do not allow any modification in their clinical application. We therefore designed a prospective study using self-developed indication-specific questionnaires to evaluate the aesthetic, functional, and sexual outcomes of MTF patients undergoing SRS.MethodsForty-nine adult MTF transgender patients who underwent two-stage SRS were eligible for study inclusion between September 2012 and January 2014. Forty patients (= N) ultimately filled out both parts of the questionnaire sets: 1 day before the first stage (T0) and 6 months after the second stage of SRS (T1). These questionnaires focused on demographic characteristics, the satisfaction with aesthetic and functional results, and sexuality.ResultsPatients rated their surgical satisfaction of most items with mean scores above 7 on a 0–10-point scale. Many items evaluating everyday life activities improved significantly after SRS compared to T0 (p < 0.01). All but one patient (97.5%) reported no regrets about having undergone surgery, and the majority recommended it to other patients with gender dysphoria. Femininity and sexual activity increased significantly postoperatively (p < 0.01). Satisfaction with intercourse and orgasm was high: 6.70 and 8.21, respectively, on a 0–10 scale.ConclusionSatisfaction with the cosmetic outcome, as well as the functional and sexual outcomes, reveal positive effects of SRS using the combined technique on transgender patient lives. Nevertheless, standardized and validated SRS-specific questionnaires are lacking.Level of Evidence IVThis journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266.

Vaginoplasty is the most frequently performed gender-affirming genital surgery for gender-diverse people with genital gender incongruence. The procedure is performed to create an aesthetic and functional vulva and vaginal canal that enables receptive intercourse, erogenous clitoral sensation and a downward-directed urine stream. Penile inversion vaginoplasty (PIV) is a single surgical procedure involving anatomical component rearrangement of the penis and scrotum that enables many patients to meet these anatomical goals. Other options include minimal-depth, peritoneal and intestinal vaginoplasty. Patient quality of life has been shown to improve drastically after vaginoplasty, but complication rates have been documented to be as high as 70%. Fortunately, most complications do not alter long-term postoperative clinical outcomes and can be managed without surgical intervention in the acute perioperative phase. However, major complications, such as rectal injury, rectovaginal fistula, and urethral or introital stenosis can substantially affect the patient experience. Innovations in surgical approaches and techniques have demonstrated promising early results for reducing complications and augmenting vaginal depth, but long-term data are scarce.In this Review, the authors describe the evolution of vaginoplasty including surgical techniques, complications, and clinical and patient-reported outcomes and consider current controversies in techniques and areas for improvement.

Abstract Context Transgender and gender diverse (TGD) individuals have greater access to genital surgery (GS) with improved insurance coverage and access to trained surgeons and interdisciplinary gender-affirming providers. Objective To determine perioperative medical and behavioral health outcomes in transfeminine (TF) individuals undergoing GS, with use of a specific gender-affirming hormone therapy (GAHT) algorithm based on individualized risk factor assessment. Methods In this retrospective observational cohort study, we collected preoperative and postoperative data from 183 TF individuals at a single tertiary referral center from 2017 to 2022, grouping patients by those who continued estradiol (Group 1) vs those who had temporarily discontinued estradiol for 2 to 6 weeks preoperatively (Group 2). Data included clinical and biochemical assessment, GAHT regimens, validated behavioral health measures, and postoperative complications. Main outcomes included venous thromboembolism (VTE) incidence, non-VTE postoperative complication incidence, and change in behavioral health assessments. Results The majority of individuals continued estradiol perioperatively (Group 1; 138 [75.4%]). Individuals who temporarily held estradiol preoperatively (Group 2; 45 [24.6%]) were statistically older (P < .01), had higher incidence of cardiometabolic comorbidities (P < .01), and higher Caprini scores (P < .01). Group 1 was statistically more likely to use oral estradiol (P < .01). One episode (0.05%) of VTE occurred (Group 1). There was no significant difference in postoperative complications or behavioral health measures between groups. Conclusion An individualized algorithm for preoperative hormone management for TF GS resulted in perioperative continuation of GAHT for the majority of individuals without significantly increasing the risk for postoperative surgical complications, while maintaining stable behavioral health measures perioperatively.

PurposeDespite a variety of free flaps that have been described for creation of the neophallus in gender affirmation surgery, none present an ideal solution. We evaluated our patients and outcomes after gender affirmation phalloplasty using musculocutaneous latissimus dorsi free flap.MethodsBetween January 2007 and May 2017, 129 female transsexuals, aged 20–53 years (mean 24 years) underwent total phalloplasty using latissimus dorsi free flap. Urethral lengthening was performed by combining a vaginal flap, labia minora flaps and a clitoral skin flap. Suitable sized testicular implants are inserted into the new scrotum. Penile prosthesis implantation, additional urethral lengthening and glans reshaping were performed in the following stages.ResultsThe mean follow-up period was 43 months (ranged from 13 to 137 months). There were one partial and two total flap necrosis. The average size of the neophallus was 14.6 cm in length and 12.4 cm in girth. Total length of the reconstructed urethra during the first stage ranged from 13.4 to 21.7 cm (mean 15.8 cm), reaching the proximal third or the midshaft of the neophallus in 91% of cases. Satisfactory voiding in standing position was confirmed in all patients. Six urethral fistulas and two strictures were observed and repaired by minor revision. Malleable and inflatable prostheses were implanted in 39 and 22 patients, respectively.ConclusionMusculocutaneous latissimus dorsi flap is a good choice for phalloplasty in gender affirmation surgery. It provides an adequate amount of tissue with sufficient blood supply for safe urethral reconstruction and penile prosthesis implantation.

This publication provides an overview of current imaging indications and practices for patients undergoing gender-affirming surgery, with an emphasis on the importance of tailored, patient-specific care. Gender-affirming surgeries are performed with personalized approaches at various stages of life for those with intersex traits or differences in sex development (I/DSD) and transgender and gender diverse (TGD) individuals. For I/DSD patients, ultrasound, genitography, or MRI occurs during infancy and puberty to evaluate genital and gonadal anatomy. Facial harmonization involves bony and soft tissue modifications, guided by maxillofacial computerized tomography (CT) with three-dimensional reconstruction. Ultrasound is the main modality in assessing hormone-related and post-surgical changes in the chest. Imaging for genital reconstruction uses cross-sectional images and fluoroscopy to assess neoanatomy and complications.

BackgroundMasculinizing mammoplasty is a surgical procedure frequently performed in transmale individuals. Despite providing a positive impact for the patient, this surgery has high rates of complications and revisions. In cases requiring a double incision, there are advantages in using an inferior pedicle when possible.MethodsThis was an observational study. Outcomes and complications were analyzed in 104 patients operated on by the author using three techniques: concentric periareolar surgery, double incision with an areola graft, and double incision with an inferior areolar pedicle. The Breast-Q questionnaire adapted for transgender males was applied.ResultsThe responses of the adapted Breast-Q questionnaires demonstrated high scores regarding quality of life and satisfaction. The rates of complications and surgical revisions were 24.3 and 25.6%, respectively, with no significant difference between the techniques. The most common complication was hematoma (13.6%), which was positively associated with the use of testosterone. Ischemia of the nipple–areola complex was present in 8.7% of the operated breasts. When using the inferior pedicle, areola ischemia occurred more often when the nipple-fold distance was greater than 8 cm.ConclusionsQuality of life, satisfaction, complications, and revisions were comparable to those observed in the literature. Hematoma was the most frequent complication, and an association with the use of testosterone was observed. When a double incision is indicated, the inferior pedicle is more advantageous than the areola graft; however, it should be used when the distance between the nipple and the inframammary fold is 8 cm or less.Level of Evidence IVThis journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266.