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This study employed the behavioral equilibrium exchange rate (BEER) approach to establish whether or not there is an exchange rate (mis-)alignment in Zimbabwe. The country is characterized by strong and significant deviations between the official and parallel exchange rates and high inflationary pressures which result in macroeconomic and financial instability leading to dwindled economic growth. Among others, the BEER model analysed the significance of macroeconomic variables in influencing exchange rates and also assessed episodes (or states) of over- and under valuation of the currency. The results indicate that all variables except investment (INV) are significant in explaining the BEER. These variables are terms of trade (TOT) which include price of gold, capital flows (CAP) and government spending (GOV) are all highly significant at the 1% level whilst trade openness (OPEN) is weakly significant at the 10% level. The results also indicate that episodes of over-valuation outweighed and outnumbered episodes of under-valuation during the study period 1980 to 2018. The study concludes that exchange rate volatility may originate from factors other than macro fundamentals given the split system that exist between the official and unofficial (parallel) exchange rates. Thus, in addition to correct regulation of macro variables, there is also need to build trust in order to curb speculation, corruption and arbitrage behaviors which amplify distortions.

The issue of road tolling is a topical subject, especially for developing countries who are being affected by paltry budgetary allocations towards highway infrastructure investment. The Zimbabwean Government took almost a decade before implementing road tolling. It was thus needful to come up with innovative, long-lasting solutions to address the financial constraints towards highway infrastructure investment hence the introduction of road tolling systems in Zimbabwe. To this effect, the study unpacks the drivers and the utility of road tolling in Zimbabwe. Through the usage of a case study research design which triangulates both the qualitative and quantitative methods, the study collected data using a survey questionnaire, document analysis and in-depth interviews with key informants. Data was analysed using the SPSS, content analysis and thematic analysis techniques. The results revealed that the dwindling budgetary allocations towards highway infrastructure investment, hyperinflation, and backlog in the maintenance and construction of trunk roads were the key factors that led the Zimbabwean Government to introduce road tolling. Additionally, the study highlighted that road tolling was introduced primarily to generate revenue for the construction, rehabilitation, and maintenance of highway infrastructure in Zimbabwe. Recommendations were made to enhance the adoption and operationalisation of road tolling systems.

Several business failures culminated in the necessity to improve overall risk management for different corporates. Educational organisations also began to realise the exigency for efficient risk management in the sector and embarked on tracking Enterprise Risk Management (ERM) related advances in the corporate world and seeking ways to apply these for higher education. This study sought to assess the involvement of internal auditors in ERM in Zimbabwean public universities. This study is quantitative and employed a survey to collect data from heads of internal audit sections in public universities. The main findings of the study indicated that 64.78 percent of the internal auditors were performing their core and permissible roles as promulgated by the Institute of Internal Audit in risk management while 35.22 percent were performing some prohibited roles. The study recommends engaging qualified internal auditors who are aware of their specific roles in risk management or providing some training for the officers in the internal audit sections. The study further recommends that these universities should institute risk management sections headed by qualified Chief Risk officers to complement internal auditors’ efforts and improve the effectiveness and efficiency of ERM in Zimbabwean public universities. Chief Risk officers should become champions of risk management in these institutions to avoid tempering the internal auditors’ objectivity.

Globally, access to HIV services by key populations has always been a challenge even prior the emergence of Coronavirus disease in 2019 (COVID-19). With reference to Zimbabwe, sex workers experienced challenges in accessing HIV services as was exacerbated by the pandemic and related lockdown restrictions. In the given context, it was critical to develop innovative approaches to increase female sex workers’ access to HIV treatment. Such approaches help prevent treatment interruption and contribute to HIV epidemic control. The study aimed to explore and describe the innovative approaches that were adopted to enhance HIV service delivery among female sex workers during the COVID-19 pandemic in Zimbabwe. A qualitative, descriptive phenomenological design was used to attain the study’s objective. Ten purposefully sampled participants were individually interviewed following a semi-structured interview guide. Data were analysed using Colaizzi’s seven steps. The research findings yielded the following themes: participants received differentiated HIV service delivery through community-based outreach, virtual psychosocial interventions, and support systems through peers, family, and institutions. The innovative approaches to promote HIV service delivery during COVID-19 enhanced female sex workers’ access to differentiated person-centred care and promoted treatment continuity. Community workers were also vital in supporting their peers’ treatment adherence. The lessons drawn from this study are critical and can be utilised in different settings.

The study analyses the effectiveness of road tolling-systems as an instrument for mobilising domestic revenue in Zimbabwe. The study assessed the effectiveness of road-tolling systems in mobilising revenue to recoup the costs of building, operating and maintaining road infrastructure. Revenue performance was rated using the internal and external dimensions of toll revenue, which revolve around activities such as toll revenue collection, administration (remittance) as well as the Zimbabwe National Road Administration’s (ZINARA’s) distribution and usage of the toll revenue. By way of mixed methods research design, the study conceptualised and contextualised the theory, models, technologies and practices of toll revenue collection in Zimbabwe. The study found that the Zimbabwean road tolling model as a hybrid conventional tolling model is a progressive, effective and reliable tool to raise revenue for constructing road infrastructure and related road-related capital investments in Zimbabwe and that the internal toll revenue performance is up-to-date with reduced toll revenue leakages and increased toll revenue yield. However, the study found that there is no meaningful investment on the road network and related highway infrastructure thus making the performance of external toll revenue questionable. The study recommended the strengthening of toll revenue collection, management, remittance and toll fees usage.

Micronutrient deficiencies remain prevalent in food systems of southern Africa, although advances in biofortification through crop breeding and agronomy provide opportunities to address these. We determined baseline soil availability of zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe) and the effects of soil type and farmer management on extractable soil Zn and Fe and subsequent concentration in cereal and legume grains under two contrasting agro-ecologies in Zimbabwe. Soil and crop surveys were conducted in Hwedza and Mutasa Districts of Zimbabwe in 2015–16 on 350 locations over different soil types. Fields with different levels of productivity (designated as “most” and “least” productive fields) were sampled using an inherited hierarchical randomized sampling design. Grain Zn and Fe concentration in maize ( Zea mays ), sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor ), finger millet ( Eleusine coracana ) and cowpea ( Vigna unguiculata ) were generally insufficient for adequate human nutrition. A Linear Mixed Effects (LME) model revealed that diethylene triamine penta-acetic acid- (DTPA) extractable soil Zn concentration and grain Zn concentration were affected primarily by field productivity level. DTPA-extractable soil Zn concentration was more than two-fold greater on the most productive fields (mean 0.8 mg kg −1 ) than on the least productive fields, with mean grain Zn concentration of 25.2 mg grain Zn kg −1 which was 13% greater than seen on the least productive fields.  An interaction effect of field productivity level and total soil Zn concentration on DTPA-extractable soil Zn concentration suggests potential contribution of organic matter management to unlocking unavailable forms of soil Zn. DTPA-extractable soil Fe and grain Fe concentration were primarily affected by soil type and crop type, respectively. The LME modelling approach revealed additional soil geochemical covariates affected DTPA-extractable soil Zn and Fe concentration and grain Zn and Fe concentration within Districts. Future studies can therefore be powered to detect their roles at wider spatial scales for sustainable management of crop Zn and Fe nutrition.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to investigate the determinants of consumers’ intention to adopt mobile banking services in Zimbabwe. Design/methodology/approach A survey of 232 bank customers was conducted in Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe, using a structured questionnaire with Likert-type questions. Customers were randomly intercepted as they walked out of five major banks. Structural equation modelling, independent-samples t-test and one-way ANOVA were used to test research hypotheses. Findings The study found that perceived usefulness, perceived self-efficacy, social influence, relative advantage and perceived compatibility all have a positive effect, whilst perceived risk has a negative effect on behavioural intention to adopt mobile banking services in Zimbabwe. Perceived ease of use, facilitating conditions, perceived complexity, perceived trialability, awareness-knowledge and demographic factors (gender, age, education and income) did not significantly influence behavioural intention to adopt mobile banking. Perceived ease of use was found to positively influence perceived usefulness, while perceived self-efficacy was found to have a positive effect on perceived ease of use. Behavioural intention was found to positively influence usage of mobile banking services in Zimbabwe. Research limitations/implications Data were collected from bank customers in Chinhoyi, one of the emerging towns in Zimbabwe. Future research should be expanded to include other major cities in Zimbabwe and other countries. More similar studies should be conducted to test the factors identified in literature in different contexts and markets and on other innovations. Practical implications The study advises banks to pay particular attention to perceived usefulness, perceived self-efficacy, social influence, relative advantage, perceived compatibility and perceived risk when designing new mobile banking services. Originality/value There is not a unified position regarding factors influencing mobile banking adoption. Factors vary with contexts, markets, time and types of innovations. The study tested some major factors identified in literature in the context of Zimbabwe.

Purpose There is a dearth of studies that have investigated mediators of the effect of service quality on customer loyalty under the conditions prevailing in Zimbabwe; where bank customers' confidence in the banking system has been dented by bank failures. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to investigate the mediators of the effect of service quality on loyalty among bank customers in Zimbabwe. Design/methodology/approach A cross-sectional survey of 310 bank customers was conducted in Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe. A questionnaire with Likert type questions was used to collect data. Customers were randomly intercepted as they walked out of five major banks. Structural equation modelling was used to test the proposed relationships. Findings The study found that service quality, satisfaction and corporate image all have positive direct effects on loyalty. It was also found that satisfaction and corporate image all mediate the effect of service quality on loyalty. Research limitations/implications The study was conducted in Chinhoyi, one of the emerging towns in Zimbabwe. There is a need to conduct more similar studies in other parts of the world in future in order to have a better understanding of this subject. Practical implications Banks are advised to address issues to do with service quality, customer satisfaction and corporate image when designing marketing programmes intended to increase customer loyalty. Originality/value Studies that have investigated mediators of the relationship between service quality and customer loyalty in banking environments such as in Zimbabwe are scarce. This study was conducted to address this knowledge gap. Relationships among customer loyalty and its antecedents are not likely to change due to conditions prevailing in a particular banking environment.

Abstract Western powers often turn to international sanctions in order to exert pressure on incumbent governments and signal their support for the opposition. Yet whether, and through what mechanisms, sanctions trigger protest remains unclear. We argue that sanction threats work as an international stamp of approval for would-be protesters; they encourage collective action against governments. Moreover, sanction threats send particularly clear and coherent signals if multiple senders issue them and if they focus on human rights, which makes such sanctions threats more effective in sparking social unrest. Using count models of protest activity, we find strong support for our arguments. We corroborate our findings with qualitative evidence from the case of Zimbabwe.

Research indicates that temperature and precipitation have a big impact on economic growth due to greenhouse emission, especially in areas that depend heavily on agriculture. While extreme weather events like droughts or extreme heat can have a negative effect on production and impede economic development, optimal precipitation levels typically result in higher crop yields and economic activity. The purpose of this study is to econometrically test the effect of rainfall and temperature on economic growth in Angola, Botswana, Tanzania and Zimbabwe. The study specifically aims to respond to the following queries: Are rainfall and temperature important indicators of economic growth in Angola, Botswana, Tanzania and Zimbabwe? The results of the study established that rainfall has a negative effect in Angola only in the long run among the selected countries. In Botswana, Tanzania and Zimbabwe rainfall has no effect on economic growth in the long run.  Whilst in the short run rainfall retains has a negative effect on economic growth in Angola and Botswana but positive relationship in Tanzania.  On the other hand, result shows that temperature has positive impact in Angola and Tanzania with a unit increase in temperature increasing economic growth by 0.6088 and 0.6955 percent in Angola and Tanzania respectively in the long run. In the short run, temperature has been established to have a positive effect in Angola, Tanzania and Zimbabwe, reflecting that temperature rises have a beneficial effect in these countries.  The results imply that climate related variables have an implication for economic growth.