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The two studies reported in the article provide normative measures for 120 novel nominal metaphors, 120 novel similes, 120 literal sentences, and 120 anomalous utterances in Polish (Study 1) and in English (Study 2). The presented set is ideally suited to addressing methodological requirements in research on metaphor processing. The critical (sentence-final) words of each utterance were controlled for in terms of their frequency per million, number of letters and syllables. For each condition in each language, the following variables are reported: cloze probability, meaningfulness, metaphoricity, and familiarity, whose results confirm that the sentences are well-matched. Consequently, the present paper provides materials that can be employed in order to test the new as well as existing theories of metaphor comprehension. The results obtained from the series of normative tests showed the same pattern in both studies, where the comparison structure present in similes (i.e., A is like B) facilitated novel metaphor comprehension, as compared to categorical statements (i.e., A is B). It therefore indicates that comparison mechanisms might be engaged in novel meaning construction irrespectively of language-specific syntactic rules.

This article explores the propensity of Iliadic landscape similes to encourage reflections on human fragility. Landscape in the similes is usually interpreted as a medium which conveys a consistent symbolic value (for example storms as the hostility of nature); however, landscape is often a more flexible medium. By offering close readings of three Iliadic similes (winter torrents at 4.452–6, snowfall at 12.279–89 and clear night at 8.555–9), this article argues that landscape allowed the poet to frame the main narrative in various ways, both helping the listener to imagine described events and interrupting the listener's immersion in the main narrative. While many have analysed how similes offer analogies to the main narrative, the ways in which the same simile can also disrupt and reframe the narrative are less understood. This article observes that shifts in narrative space and time played a key role in changing the perspective of the listener. Taking a broadly phenomenological approach, it proposes that embodied descriptions of space, which recreate the experience of the moving body in landscape, invite the listener to consider the temporal scale of the natural world. By looking at how landscape in select similes shifts the listener's spatial and temporal experience, this article argues that landscape contributes to the wider Iliadic theme of human fragility. In particular, it identifies the potential for landscape similes to minimize the scale of human experience, question the possibility of human agency, and reveal the limitations of human perspectives and knowledge.

Very little is known about the processes underlying second language (L2) speakers’ understanding of written metaphors and similes. Moreover, most of the theories on figurative language comprehension do not consider reader-related factors. In the study, we used eye-tracking to examine how native Finnish speakers (N = 63) read written English nominal metaphors (“education is a stairway”) and similes (“education is like a stairway”). Identical topic–vehicle pairs were used in both conditions. After reading, participants evaluated familiarity of each pair. English proficiency was measured using the Bilingual-language Profile Questionnaire and the Lexical Test for Advanced Learners of English. The results showed that readers were more likely to regress within metaphors than within similes, indicating that processing metaphors requires more processing effort than processing similes. The familiarity of a metaphor and L2 English proficiency modulated this effect. The results are discussed in the light of current theories on figurative language processing.

Simile is much less investigated than metaphor, although it occurs as frequently in discourse. This paper aims to provide an account of similes in English, which serves as the starting point for an exploration of the problems they can pose when translated into Italian. First, it deals with the nature and function of similes, the criteria for their classification, and their interpretation. Then, it examines a range of similes illustrating the translation problems they can pose, and discusses the strategies to adopt for each problem stated. The data discussed are taken from English texts belonging to various textual genres, and their translations into Italian.

The narrative and figurative in versions in the Iliad s central battle books function like a large-scale reverse simile. Just as similes force the audience to assess likeness and difference by comparing unlike terms, so when the Achaian camp adopts features of a city under siege, the audience is compelled to consider how the Trojans and Achaians are, and are not, like one another. In building this simile-like reversal, thepoem'spoetic devices are integrally at work with its narrative structure. The transposition has a universalizing effect--he story of your enemy may be like your own--even as the inversion makes the audience reconsider distinctions between the two sides at war.

Introduction Simile which is an important tool of literary creation can be regarded as the most significant element of expression used in reflection of experiences, beliefs, and thoughts of a lecturer. Thus, it has always been the subject of attention by the speakers as the most commonly used and popular factor. In the present study, this fantastic element is criticized in poetry of Badr al-Din Chachi, a great poet of the 8th century. The main feature of the poetry is the numerous uses of imageries, especially simile and metaphor. In this research, which is based on the descriptive-analytical method, simile is considered as an essential part in presentation of the poet's fundamental themes. The main objective of this research is to examine the role and effect of simile in ambiguity and diminution of images in Badr Chachi's poetry. Besides, the poet's innovation and initiative in presenting fresh similes are evaluated. Discussion and analysis The farther is the tenor from the vehicle, the more remarkable the rate of simile. On the other hand, the more similar are the tenor and the vehicle, the less remarkable the rate of simile. Obviously, in stereotypes, the tenor is easily found in both sides of the simile, so the simile has a narrow state, whereas in new and modern similes, as far as the poet has discovered a new relationship between the tenor and the vehicle, the degree of the simile is more understandable and more figurative speech is used. Therefore, in terms of imagery, the easily- recognized similes are more valuable. The similes which are fresh and unique are usually comprehensive, that is, their vehicle is also mentioned directly since the open view of the simile may divert the reader's mind from the speaker's intended purpose. Regarding Badr's poetry, it can be said that there are a number of open-angle analogues in his poetry, which is the result of the poet's genius and innovation. Noteworthy that any new and exotic analogies may enter into literary texts in two ways, either through the speaker's invention and creation, which can be the result of his experience and direct reception of nature or various elements of his life, or through one of the ways that can be used in modernization of stereotypical and vulgar phrases. The fact that the artist has a new perspective toward his surrounding elements can somehow reduce their familiarity. One of the most important approaches in literary criticism is defamiliarization which has a broader meaning in the works of the Russian formalists and includes all the techniques and approaches the author consciously enjoys to make the world weird to the audience. In Badr Chachi's poetry, there are also cases that indicate the poet's tendency toward rebuilding some familiar and popular images. Simile, metaphor, irony, and quintessence are techniques that can be imaginative by themselves. Now, if some of these figurative speeches are used in conjunction with one another in a verse, it will make the reader more contemplated and understandable for understanding the correlation between images. For this reason, this simile technique causes the density and sometimes interference of images. Comparative density is one of the features that is considered to be similar to rhetoric simile. Since perceiving the proportions of each image requires time and reflection, multiple similes presented within a verse will interfere with the transmission of the message of the image. Of course, it means the simile density within a verse so that the likeness is complete both in the structural and the semantic aspects of the same verse. On the use of simile in Badr Chachi's poems, it is essential to note that in most cases, the similes do not exceed two or at most three in one verse. In a few cases, it is possible to find verse in his Diwan in which four similes are used in one verse. It should be noted that the most important reason for the ambiguity of the similes is that in some cases, the simile is linked to the metaphor. Since metaphor is more vague and intriguing than other literary figures, it has had a great impact on obscurity of images. One of the ways that can be combined along with rhetorical aesthetics to stimulate the emotions and feelings and the transference of thought and the message of the subject is to accompany the metaphor with other figures and techniques of exegesis and expression. From this viewpoint, in his poems, \"Badr\" has paid great attention to its arrangement through the use of a variety of innovative techniques. Hence, there is less likeness in his Diwan that with is not accompanied by one different literary figure or other forms of imagination. Conclusion Badr Chachi is one of the poets who liked to pay much attention to simile as a way to express his content. He uses a total of 1,788 similes, which compared to the total volume of 2836 verses in his Diwan, comprise a significant frequency, that is, it has used at least a simile in each two verses. He has also taken advantage of all opportunities of creating new content and expanding the figurative meanings of words, for example, similes, simile and innovation combination, and refreshment of repetitive similes. The sharp look of the poet has helped him to add numerous new similes and innovative patterns to the collection of Persian poetry. In many cases, he has also been able to defamiliarize the commonly used and popular similes. In dealing with similes, Badr Chachi has greater desire to use some especial figures among which the most favorite is simile. One of the highest frequency figures are singular to compound similes, compound innovative tenors, neighboring similes, as well as using new simile figures. Due to the poet's tendency to add up simile with other figurative and rhetoric techniques, especially metaphorical discourse, his poem's images are generally static and vague, and the reader needs to spend plenty of time to realize the associations and proportions between simile components.

Introduction Simile which is an important tool of literary creation can be regarded as the most significant element of expression used in reflection of experiences, beliefs, and thoughts of a lecturer. Thus, it has always been the subject of attention by the speakers as the most commonly used and popular factor. In the present study, this fantastic element is criticized in poetry of Badr al-Din Chachi, a great poet of the 8th century. The main feature of the poetry is the numerous uses of imageries, especially simile and metaphor. In this research, which is based on the descriptive-analytical method, simile is considered as an essential part in presentation of the poet's fundamental themes. The main objective of this research is to examine the role and effect of simile in ambiguity and diminution of images in Badr Chachi's poetry. Besides, the poet's innovation and initiative in presenting fresh similes are evaluated. Discussion and analysis The farther is the tenor from the vehicle, the more remarkable the rate of simile. On the other hand, the more similar are the tenor and the vehicle, the less remarkable the rate of simile. Obviously, in stereotypes, the tenor is easily found in both sides of the simile, so the simile has a narrow state, whereas in new and modern similes, as far as the poet has discovered a new relationship between the tenor and the vehicle, the degree of the simile is more understandable and more figurative speech is used. Therefore, in terms of imagery, the easily- recognized similes are more valuable. The similes which are fresh and unique are usually comprehensive, that is, their vehicle is also mentioned directly since the open view of the simile may divert the reader's mind from the speaker's intended purpose. Regarding Badr's poetry, it can be said that there are a number of open-angle analogues in his poetry, which is the result of the poet's genius and innovation. Noteworthy that any new and exotic analogies may enter into literary texts in two ways, either through the speaker's invention and creation, which can be the result of his experience and direct reception of nature or various elements of his life, or through one of the ways that can be used in modernization of stereotypical and vulgar phrases. The fact that the artist has a new perspective toward his surrounding elements can somehow reduce their familiarity. One of the most important approaches in literary criticism is defamiliarization which has a broader meaning in the works of the Russian formalists and includes all the techniques and approaches the author consciously enjoys to make the world weird to the audience. In Badr Chachi's poetry, there are also cases that indicate the poet's tendency toward rebuilding some familiar and popular images. Simile, metaphor, irony, and quintessence are techniques that can be imaginative by themselves. Now, if some of these figurative speeches are used in conjunction with one another in a verse, it will make the reader more contemplated and understandable for understanding the correlation between images. For this reason, this simile technique causes the density and sometimes interference of images. Comparative density is one of the features that is considered to be similar to rhetoric simile. Since perceiving the proportions of each image requires time and reflection, multiple similes presented within a verse will interfere with the transmission of the message of the image. Of course, it means the simile density within a verse so that the likeness is complete both in the structural and the semantic aspects of the same verse. On the use of simile in Badr Chachi's poems, it is essential to note that in most cases, the similes do not exceed two or at most three in one verse. In a few cases, it is possible to find verse in his Diwan in which four similes are used in one verse. It should be noted that the most important reason for the ambiguity of the similes is that in some cases, the simile is linked to the metaphor. Since metaphor is more vague and intriguing than other literary figures, it has had a great impact on obscurity of images. One of the ways that can be combined along with rhetorical aesthetics to stimulate the emotions and feelings and the transference of thought and the message of the subject is to accompany the metaphor with other figures and techniques of exegesis and expression. From this viewpoint, in his poems, \"Badr\" has paid great attention to its arrangement through the use of a variety of innovative techniques. Hence, there is less likeness in his Diwan that with is not accompanied by one different literary figure or other forms of imagination. Conclusion Badr Chachi is one of the poets who liked to pay much attention to simile as a way to express his content. He uses a total of 1,788 similes, which compared to the total volume of 2836 verses in his Diwan, comprise a significant frequency, that is, it has used at least a simile in each two verses. He has also taken advantage of all opportunities of creating new content and expanding the figurative meanings of words, for example, similes, simile and innovation combination, and refreshment of repetitive similes. The sharp look of the poet has helped him to add numerous new similes and innovative patterns to the collection of Persian poetry. In many cases, he has also been able to defamiliarize the commonly used and popular similes. In dealing with similes, Badr Chachi has greater desire to use some especial figures among which the most favorite is simile. One of the highest frequency figures are singular to compound similes, compound innovative tenors, neighboring similes, as well as using new simile figures. Due to the poet's tendency to add up simile with other figurative and rhetoric techniques, especially metaphorical discourse, his poem's images are generally static and vague, and the reader needs to spend plenty of time to realize the associations and proportions between simile components.

Previous translation process research has pointed to an increased cognitive load when translating metaphoric compared to literal language. Yet, studies conducted thus far have not examined the role of translation direction (i.e., L1–L2 vs. L2–L1) in novel metaphor translation and have not tested whether and how this process might be modulated by the linguistic form of a novel meaning. In the present study, Polish (L1) – English (L2) translation students translated novel nominal metaphors (A is B), novel similes (A is like B), and literal sentences, in either L1–L2 or L2–L1 translation directions, while their translation behavior was recorded using a keystroke logging method. The results revealed longer translation durations for both metaphors and similes relative to literal utterances. Furthermore, we found slower translation times for novel nominal metaphors compared to novel similes and literal sentences, yet only in the L2–L1 translation direction. Such results might indicate that novel meaning translation is more cognitively taxing in the case of novel nominal metaphors, which require a more robust activation of comparison mechanisms, relative to novel similes. Importantly, this effect might be stronger when translating in the direction in which access to semantic representations is potentially more automatic (i.e., L2–L1 translation).

\"Simile\" as one of the figures of speech and a type of semantic deviation, promotes the form and the aspects of poetry and also creates a tender and artistic atmosphere in the poem. It makes the atmosphere of a poem more tangible for readers and due to this fact it makes the poem eloquent and attractive. “Fereidoon Tavalloli” knew this important matter and used it very well; in a way that among other semantic deviations, he has chosen simile two hundred and ten times. He used an abundance of sensory similes rather than the other kind of simile that shows his tender and extroverted soul. It is absorbing that his personal life is vividly noticeable in similes of his poems; however, his job as an archaeologist has no straight aspects. He regards the Baroque period and he might have a deal with the Oedipus complex. Using a descriptive-analytical method, this study concentrates on different kinds of simile and the domain of tenors and vehicles that had been used in Tavalloli’s poems. Also, this study can be a presentation of the poet's mind and sensation