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"Smart contracts"
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A conceptual framework for blockchain smart contract adoption to manage real estate deals in smart cities
Blockchains-based smart contracts are disrupting the smart real estate sector of the smart cities. The current study explores the literature focused on blockchain smart contracts in smart real estate and proposes a conceptual framework for its adoption in smart cities. Based on a systematic review method, the literature published between 2000 and 2020 is explored and analyzed. From the literature, ten key aspects of the blockchain smart contracts are highlighted that are grouped into six layers for adopting the smart contracts in smart real estate. The decentralized application and its interactions with Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) are presented to show the development of a smart contract that can be used for blockchain smart contracts in real estate. Further, a detailed design and interaction mechanism are highlighted for the real estate owners and users as parties to a smart contract. A list of functions for initiating, creating, modifying, or terminating a smart contract is presented along with a stepwise procedure for establishing and terminating smart contracts. The current study can help the users enjoy a more immersive, user-friendly, and visualized contracting process, whereas the owners, property technologies (Proptech) companies, and real estate agents can enjoy more business and sales. This can help disrupt traditional real estate and transform it into smart real estate in line with industry 4.0 requirements.
Journal Article
A survey of application research based on blockchain smart contract
Nowadays, blockchain technology and industry has developed rapidly all over the world, which is inseparable from continuous innovation and improvement on smart contract technology. Therefore, by summarizing the working principle and application research status of blockchain smart contract, this paper analyzes the development and challenges of smart contract. Firstly, we introduce the model and operation principle of blockchain smart contract for the overall architecture, analyze the deployment process of smart contract with Ethereum, Hyperledger Fabric and EOSIO, and make a comparative analysis from the technical level. And taking Byteball, InterValue and IOTA platforms as examples, we introduce the deployment process and application potential for DAG-based blockchain smart contract. Additionally, we also summarize the application research of smart contract for international and Blockchain Oracle, and discuss its innovative application and development trend in the future. Secondly, we introduce the application status of smart contract with Ethereum and Hyperledger Fabric platforms from the aspects of financial transactions, Internet of things, medical applications, and supply chain, and further discuss EOS (enterprise operation system), Blockchain Oracle and other application fields. Furthermore, we introduce the application advantages and challenges to smart contract for industrial Internet from the fields of manufacturing, food industry, industrial Internet of things and industry 4.0. Finally, we discuss the challenges faced by smart contract with technical issues, analyzes the impact on large-scale applications and mining system on the sustainable development of smart contract, and looks forward to the future research direction of blockchain smart contract.
Journal Article
Blockchain technology and smart contracts in decentralized governance systems
The aim of our systematic review was to inspect the recently published literature on decentralized governance systems and integrate the insights it articulates on blockchain technology and smart contracts by employing Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. Throughout January and May 2022, a quantitative literature review of ProQuest, Scopus, and the Web of Science databases was carried out, with search terms including \"city\" + \"blockchain technology\", \"smart contracts\", and \"decentralized governance systems\". As the analyzed research studies were published between 2016 and 2022, only 371 sources satisfied the eligibility criteria. A Shiny app was harnessed for the PRISMA flow diagram to include evidence-based acquired and handled data. Analyzing the most recent and relevant sources and leveraging screening and quality assessment tools such as AMSTAR, Dedoose, Distiller SR, ROBIS, and SRDR, we integrated the core outcomes and robust correlations related to smart urban governance. As data visualization tools, for initial bibliometric mapping dimensions were harnessed, together with layout algorithms provided by VOSviewer. Future research should investigate smart contract governance of blockchain applications and infrastructure using decision-making tools and spatial cognition algorithms.
Journal Article
Smart Contract Broker: Improving Smart Contract Reusability in a Blockchain Environment
In this paper, we propose a smart contract broker to improve the reusability of smart contracts in a blockchain environment. The current blockchain platform lacks a standard approach to sharing and managing smart contracts, which makes it difficult for developers to reuse them and leads to efficiency issues. The proposed smart contract broker uses tags to identify and organize smart contracts, and it provides an environment for comparing and reusing smart contracts. This improves the reusability of smart contracts and efficiency. The proposed smart contract broker can be applied as a reference model that increases the flexibility and reusability of smart contract management in a blockchain environment.
Journal Article
Maintenance-related concerns for post-deployed Ethereum smart contract development: issues, techniques, and future challenges
Software development is a very broad activity that captures the entire life cycle of a software, which includes designing, programming, maintenance and so on. In this study, we focus on the maintenance-related concerns of the post-deployment of smart contracts. Smart contracts are self-executed programs that run on a blockchain. They cannot be modified once deployed and hence they bring unique maintenance challenges compared to conventional software. According to the definition of ISO/IEC 14764, there are four kinds of software maintenance, i.e., corrective, adaptive, perfective, and preventive maintenance. This study aims to answer (i) What kinds of issues will smart contract developers encounter for corrective, adaptive, perfective, and preventive maintenance after they are deployed to the Ethereum? (ii) What are the current maintenance-related methods used for smart contracts? To obtain the answers to these research questions, we first conducted a systematic literature review to analyze 131 smart contract related research papers published from 2014 to 2020. Since the Ethereum ecosystem is fast-growing, some results from previous publications might be out-of-date and there may be a gap between academia and industry. To address this, we performed an online survey of smart contract developers on Github to validate our findings and received 165 useful responses. Based on the survey feedback and literature review, we present the first empirical study on smart contract maintenance-related concerns. Our study can help smart contract developers better maintain their smart contract-based projects, and we highlight some key future research directions to improve the Ethereum ecosystem.
Journal Article
Major vulnerabilities in Ethereum smart contracts: Investigation and statistical analysis
The general public is becoming increasingly familiar with blockchain technology. Numerous new applications are made possible by this technology's unique features, which include transparency, strong security via cryptography, and distribution. These applications need certain programming tools and interfaces to be implemented. This is made feasible by smart contracts. If the prerequisites are satisfied, smart contracts are carried out automatically. Any mistake in smart contract coding, particularly security-related ones, might have an impact on the project as a whole, available funds, and important data. The current paper discusses the flaws of the Ethereum smart contract in this respect. By examining publically accessible scientific sources, this work aims to present thorough information about vulnerabilities, examples, and current security solutions. Additionally, a substantial collection of current Ethereum (ETH) smart contracts has undergone a static code examination to conduct the vulnerability-finding procedure. The output has undergone assessments and statistical analysis. The study's conclusions demonstrate that smart contracts have several distinct flaws, including arithmetic flaws, that developers should be more aware of. These vulnerabilities and the solutions that can be used to address them are also included.
Journal Article
AGTS: Novel automated generation of smart contract test suites for Hyperledger Fabric
The robustness and reliability of blockchain applications, critically depend on thorough testing. This study introduces AGTS, an automated framework for generating smart contract test suites on Hyperledger Fabric, significantly reducing manual effort while improving test coverage and security. The framework integrates static and dynamic analysis, leveraging symbolic execution and fuzz testing to detect vulnerabilities. The project is implemented in C#, and uses three test cases: CoCoME, LibraryMS and LoanPS, with their requirements as input, and generates their closely related test cases. We generated 34 test cases for CoCoME, 32 for LibraryMS, and 28 for LoanPS. Combining the test cases, their executable scripts were generated. Finally, we tested all the targeted smart contracts rigorously against the predefined criteria. The generated scripts undergo the quality assurance using ShellCheck, deploying on the continuous integration system, that further enhances the reliability and maintainability of these tests. AGTS automates the entire process of test script creation and verification, drastically reducing the manual effort involved in preparing test cases. It facilitates rapid and thorough testing cycles by generating dedicated scripts that execute specific test scenarios on smart contracts, verifying their behavior and performance. By automating the tedious and error-prone task of writing test cases, AGTS accelerates the development process and fortifies the security framework of blockchain applications. Comprehensive evaluation of AGTS across diverse real world smart contracts demonstrated the effectiveness in defect detection, significantly outperforming existing methods. The contribution of AGTS extends beyond providing a practical testing tool, by offering developers a robust framework for ensuring the reliability and security of their smart contracts. AGTS not only expedites test preparation but also ensures comprehensive test coverage, thus improving the overall quality of blockchain applications.
Journal Article
Detection of vulnerabilities in blockchain smart contracts using deep learning
Blockchain helps to give a sense of security as there is only one history of transactions visible to all the involved parties. Smart contracts enable users to manage significant asset amounts of finances on the blockchain without the involvement of any intermediaries. The conditions and checks that have been written in smart contract and executed to the application cannot be changed again. However, these unique features pose some other risks to the smart contract. Smart contracts have several flaws in its programmable language and methods of execution, despite being a developing technology. To build smart contracts and implement numerous complicated business logics, high-level languages are used by the developers to code smart contracts. Thus, blockchain smart contract is the most important element of any decentralized application, posing the risk for it to be attacked. So, the presence of vulnerabilities are to be taken care of on a priority basis. It is important for detection of vulnerabilities in a smart contract and only then implement and connect it with applications to ensure security of funds. The motive of the paper is to discuss how deep learning may be utilized to deliver bug-free secure smart contracts. Objective of the paper is to detect three kinds of vulnerabilities- reentrancy, timestamp and infinite loop. A deep learning model has been created for detection of smart contract vulnerabilities using graph neural networks. The performance of this model has been compared to the present automated tools and other independent methods. It has been shown that this model has greater accuracy than other methods while comparing the prediction of smart contract vulnerabilities in existing models.
Journal Article
A survey on automation approaches of smart contract generation
In the blockchain environment, smart contracts are computer programs that run on the blockchain platform. However, the development of smart contracts is a major challenge for developers, since blockchain platforms are still evolving. Owing to the inherited nature of blockchain, developing smart contracts without introducing vulnerabilities is not an easy task, as the deployed code is immutable and can be invoked by anyone with access to the network. Smart contracts have proved to be error-prone in practice due to the complexity of programming. Additionally, non-functional requirements, such as service cost, security, performance, authorization, and authentication, should be well implemented and defined in computer systems. In this paper, we aim to present a systematic literature review to outline in detail different approaches of smart contracts generation. Furthermore, we present a comparison of the existing approaches based on a classification according to automation paradigm and a set of defined criteria. Finally, we discuss the gaps in the literature, as well as identify a set of potential challenges which can significantly strengthen the existing work. The study shows that the examined works focused only on a limited number of specific features, such as authorization, asset control, and security. Additionally, formal verification of smart contracts and data privacy are poorly addressed.
Journal Article