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Background While the role of parenting in children’s eating behaviors has been studied extensively, less attention has been given to its potential association with children’s snacking habits. To address this gap, we conducted a systematic review to describe associations between food parenting and child snacking, or consuming energy dense foods/foods in between meals. Methods Six electronic databases were searched using standardized language to identify quantitative studies describing associations of general and feeding-specific parenting styles as well as food parenting practices with snacking behaviors of children aged 2–18 years. Eligible peer-reviewed journal articles published between 1980 and 2017 were included. Data were extracted using a standard protocol by three coders; all items were double coded to ensure consistency. Results Forty-seven studies met inclusion criteria. Few studies focused on general feeding ( n  = 3) or parenting styles ( n  = 10). Most studies focused on controlling food parenting practices ( n  = 39) that were not specific to snacking. Parental restriction of food was positively associated with child snack intake in 13/23 studies, while pressure to eat and monitoring yielded inconsistent results. Home availability of unhealthy foods was positively associated with snack intake in 10/11 studies. Findings related to positive parent behaviors (e.g. role modeling) were limited and yielded mixed results ( n  = 9). Snacking was often assessed using food frequency items and defined post-hoc based on nutritional characteristics (e.g. energy-dense, sugary foods, unhealthy, etc.). Timing was rarely included in the definition of a snack (i.e. chips eaten between meals vs. with lunch). Conclusions Restrictive feeding and home access to unhealthy foods were most consistently associated with snacking among young children. Research is needed to identify positive parenting behaviors around child snacking that may be used as targets for health promotion. Detailed definitions of snacking that address food type, context, and purpose are needed to advance findings within the field. We provide suggested standardized terminology for future research.

Background Impulsivity is a psychological trait linked to health issues such as obesity. However, few studies have explored the relation between impulsivity, dietary intake, and eating disorders (EDs) in a general population. Objective The aim of this cross-sectional study was to assess whether impulsivity was associated with energy intake, food-group consumption, snacking, and risk of EDs. Design In 2014, 51,368 adult participants from the NutriNet-Santé Study completed the 11th version of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11), which assesses impulsivity. Food-group consumption and diet quality were evaluated by using ≥3 self-reported 24-h dietary records (n = 35,830), whereas snacking behavior was evaluated by an ad hoc question (n = 48,562). Risk of EDs was assessed with the Sick-Control-One-Fat-Food Questionnaire (SCOFF), and categories of ED (restrictive, bulimic, hyperphagic, and other types of EDs) were determined with the Expali algorithm (n = 48,824). Logistic and linear regressions were used to analyze the associations between impulsivity and energy intake, food-group consumption, diet quality, snacking, and risk of EDs, taking into account sociodemographic and lifestyle factors. Results Positive associations were found between impulsivity and consumption of alcoholic beverages and appetizers, whereas negative associations were found for fruit and vegetables, meat and poultry, processed meat, dairy products, milk-based desserts, and starchy foods. Impulsivity was positively associated with energy intake and negatively associated with diet quality. Impulsivity was also positively associated with snacking (OR: 3.32; 95% CI: 2.99, 3.68) and risk of EDs (OR: 3.02; 95% CI: 2.74, 3.33). The strongest associations were found for bulimic disorders (OR: 4.38; 95% CI: 3.66, 5.23) and hyperphagic disorders (OR: 2.91; 95% CI: 2.56, 3.31). Conclusion Impulsivity was associated with food intakes, snacking, and risk of EDs and could be taken into account in the promot

Introduction: The major cause of obesity is excessive calorie intake. Inappropriate dietary habits, like increased meal frequency, portion sizes, or amount of snacks consumed contribute to obesity development. Potential differences in the perception of snacks by people with different BMIs may be one of the causes of obesity. Assessment of the perception of snacks by people with excessive and normal body weight will allow us to check whether this parameter actually has an impact on the development of obesity. Materials and Methods: A survey study was conducted to check differences in assessing different snacks and beverages by individuals with varied BMIs. Participants analyzed snacks on presented photographs and assessed portion sizes, estimated caloric content, assessed whether the meal was healthy, and determined whether the indicated portion would be sufficient to satisfy their hunger. The study population was divided according to body mass index (BMI) into individuals with normal weight, overweight, and obesity. Additionally, the study group was divided according to gender and age. Results: There were no statistically significant differences in the majority of the studied parameters concerning BMI; however, the study revealed relatively low education level regarding caloric assessment. Conclusions: BMI seems not to have an influence on calorie and portion size perception of snacks. The majority of the population wrongly assessed the calorific value of snacks, which might contribute to obesity development. People have a tendency to overestimate the caloric value of snacks. Women assess the portion size of highly processed snacks as larger than men do.

Background Despite their good intentions, people often do not eat healthily. This is known as the intention-behavior gap. Although the intention-behavior relationship is theorized as a within-person process, most evidence is based on between-person differences. Purpose The purpose of the present study is to investigate the within-person intention-behavior association for unhealthy snack consumption. Methods Young adults ( N  = 45) participated in an intensive longitudinal study. They reported intentions and snack consumption five times daily for 7 days ( n  = 1068 observations analyzed). Results A within-person unit difference in intentions was associated with a halving of the number of unhealthy snacks consumed in the following 3 h (CI 95 27–70 %). Between-person differences in average intentions did not predict unhealthy snack consumption. Conclusions Consistent with theory, the intention-behavior relation for healthy eating is best understood as a within-person process. Interventions to reduce unhealthy snacking should target times of day when intentions are weakest.

Background Anxiety and depression can seriously undermine mental health and quality of life globally. The consumption of junk foods, including ultra-processed foods, fast foods, unhealthy snacks, and sugar-sweetened beverages, has been linked to mental health. The aim of this study is to use the published literature to evaluate how junk food consumption may be associated with mental health disorders in adults. Methods A systematic search was conducted up to July 2023 across international databases including PubMed/Medline, ISI Web of Science, Scopus, Cochrane, Google Scholar, and EMBASE. Data extraction and quality assessment were performed by two independent reviewers. Heterogeneity across studies was assessed using the I 2 statistic and chi-square-based Q-test. A random/fixed effect meta-analysis was conducted to pool odds ratios (ORs) and hazard ratios (HRs). Results Of the 1745 retrieved articles, 17 studies with 159,885 participants were suitable for inclusion in the systematic review and meta-analysis (seven longitudinal, nine cross-sectional and one case-control studies). Quantitative synthesis based on cross-sectional studies showed that junk food consumption increases the odds of having stress and depression (OR = 1.15, 95% CI: 1.06 to 1.23). Moreover, pooling results of cohort studies showed that junk food consumption is associated with a 16% increment in the odds of developing mental health problems (OR = 1.16, 95% CI: 1.07 to 1.24). Conclusion Meta-analysis revealed that consumption of junk foods was associated with an increased hazard of developing depression. Increased consumption of junk food has heightened the odds of depression and psychological stress being experienced in adult populations.

Background Health warning labels (HWLs) using images and text to depict the negative health consequences of tobacco consumption are effective and acceptable for changing smoking-related outcomes. There is currently limited evidence concerning their potential use for reducing consumption of alcoholic drinks and energy-dense foods. The aim of this research was to describe the potential effectiveness and acceptability of image-and-text (also known as pictorial or graphic) HWLs applied to : i. alcoholic drinks and ii. energy-dense snack foods. Methods Two online studies were conducted using between-subjects designs with general population samples. Participants rated one of 21 image-and-text HWLs on alcoholic drinks ( n  = 5528), or one of 18 image-and-text HWLs on energy-dense snacks ( n  = 4618). HWLs comprised a graphic image with explanatory text, depicting, respectively, seven diseases linked to excess alcohol consumption, and six diseases linked to excess energy intake. Diseases included heart disease and various cancers. Outcomes were negative emotional arousal, desire to consume the labelled product, and acceptability of the label. Free-text comments relating to HWLs were content analysed. Results For both alcoholic drinks and energy-dense snacks, HWLs depicting bowel cancer generated the highest levels of negative emotional arousal and lowest desire to consume the product, but were the least acceptable. Acceptability was generally low for HWLs applied to alcohol, with 3 of 21 rated as acceptable, and was generally high for snacks, with 13 of 18 rated as acceptable. The majority of free-text comments expressed negative reactions to HWLs on alcohol or energy-dense snacks. Conclusions Image-and-text health warning labels depicting bowel cancer showed greatest potential for reducing selection and consumption of alcoholic drinks and energy-dense snacks, although they were the least acceptable. Laboratory and field studies are needed to assess their impact on selection and consumption.

Nudge has proven effective in promoting healthier eating, especially in academic environments. However, its application in vending machines has not been extensively studied yet, with existing studies focusing on choice and overlooking the emotional and cognitive responses to these interventions. Our research explored how visual and olfactory nudges (and a combination of both) can encourage healthier choices in university vending machines, and examined the related emotional and cognitive reactions, adopting a consumer neuroscience approach. It encompassed three distinct analysis levels: behavioral (snack choice), neurophysiological (emotional and cognitive reactions assessed through skin conductance and electroencephalography), and attentional (visual attention on snacks evaluated via eye-tracking). The findings revealed that while visual and olfactory nudges, when considered individually, were associated with an increased likelihood of making healthier choices, their combined effect was not significant. Skin conductance indicated that olfactory and combined nudge interventions induced relaxation, potentially promoting healthier choices. Electroencephalography results suggested a reduced motivational approach toward snacks when both nudges were combined. Eye-tracking indicated that individuals pay heightened attention to healthy snacks when positioned at eye level, however, this can also be affected by the nudge condition. Our findings suggest that implementing visual or olfactory nudges alone may promote healthier choices in vending machines, whereas combining them may lessen their impact, and corroborate the importance of positioning target products in locations where they are readily visible to consumers. These insights enhance our understanding of the emotional, cognitive, and attentional components behind nudge interventions and offer practical strategies for promoting healthier eating habits.

Promoting healthy snacking is important in addressing malnutrition, overweight and obesity among an ageing population. However, little is known about the factors underlying snacking behaviour in older adults. The present study aimed to explore within- and between-person associations between determinants (i.e. intention, visibility of snacks, social modelling and emotions) and snacking behaviours (i.e. decision to snack, health factor of the snack and portion size) in older adults (60+). Conducting a two-part intensive longitudinal design, data were analysed from forty-eight healthy older adults consisting of (1) an event-based self-report ecological momentary assessment (EMA) diary every time they had a snack and (2) a time-based EMA questionnaire on their phone five times per day. Analysis through generalised linear mixed models indicated that higher intention to snack healthily leads to healthier snacking while higher levels of social modelling and cheerfulness promote unhealthier choices within individuals. At the between-person level, similar results were found for intention and social modelling. Visibility of a snack increased portion size at both a within- and between-person level, while the intention to eat a healthy snack only increased portion size at the between-person level. No associations were found between the decision to snack and all determinants. This is the first study to investigate both within- and between-person associations between time-varying determinants and snacking in older adults. Such information holds the potential for incorporation into just-in-time adaptive interventions, allowing for personalised tailoring, more effective promotion of healthier snacking behaviours and thus pursuing the challenge of healthy ageing.

Food and energy intake can be effectively lowered by changing food properties, but little is known whether modifying food shape is sufficient to influence intake. This study investigated the influence of cracker shape and cheese viscosity on ad libitum intake of cracker–cheese combinations. Forty-four participants (thirteen males, 23 (sd 3) years, BMI 21 (sd 2) kg/m2) participated in four late afternoon snack sessions (2 × 2 randomised crossover design). Iso-energetic crackers were baked into flat squares and finger-shape cylindrical sticks and combined with a cheese dip varying in viscosity. Approximately eighty crackers and 500 g cheese dip were served in separate large bowls. Participants consumed crackers with cheese dip ad libitum while watching a movie of 30 min. Dipping behaviour and oral processing behaviour were measured simultaneously by hidden balances under the cheese bowls and video recordings. Cracker intake (28 (sem 1) crackers) of cracker–cheese combinations was not influenced by cracker shape. Cheese intake of cracker–cheese combinations was 15 % higher for flat-squared than finger-shape crackers (131 kJ, P = 0·016), as a larger amount of cheese was scooped with flat-squared crackers (2·9 (sem 0·2) v. 2·3 (sem 0·1) g cheese per dip, P < 0·001) and showed higher eating rate and energy intake rate (P < 0·001). Eating rate over snacking time decreased by reducing bite frequency (P < 0·001) while cheese dip size remained fairly constant (P = 0·12). Larger energy intake from condiments was facilitated by increased cracker surface, and this did not trigger earlier satiation. Changing food carrier surface may be a promising approach to moderate energy intake of often high energy dense condiments, sauces and toppings.

To examine cross-sectional and longitudinal (one-year follow-up) associations of parental feeding styles with child snacking behaviour and weight in the context of general parenting, taking into account the multidimensionality of the controlling feeding style. Linear regression analyses were performed. Parents completed a questionnaire to measure five feeding style dimensions (Instrumental Feeding, Emotional Feeding, Encouragement, Overt Control and Covert Control) and children's fruit, energy-dense snack and sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) intakes. Children's height and weight were measured to calculate their BMI Z-scores. Moderation by parenting style was tested by adding interaction terms to the regression analyses. Observational study in the Netherlands. Parent-child dyads (n 1275) participating in the INPACT (IVO Nutrition and Physical Activity Child cohorT) study; children were (on average) 9 years of age. Instrumental Feeding and Emotional Feeding were negatively related to child fruit intake one year later and positively to (changes in) child energy-dense snack intake. Encouragement was negatively related to child energy-dense snacking and SSB intake one year later. Overt Control was cross-sectionally and prospectively related to (changes in) child energy-dense snacking and SSB intake in a negative direction. Covert Control showed similar associations with child energy-dense snacking and SSB intake as Overt Control. Although Covert Control was also positively related to child fruit intake and (changes in) child BMI Z-score, bootstrapping analyses revealed only a differential effect of Overt Control and Covert Control on child BMI Z-score one year later, with Covert Control displaying a stronger, positive association. Moderation analyses showed that some significant associations between parental feeding styles and outcome measures were dependent on the degree of psychological control and behavioural control. Instrumental Feeding and Emotional Feeding may have a detrimental impact on children's snacking behaviour, while Encouragement, Overt Control and Covert Control may lead to less energy-dense snacking and less SSB intake. Overt Control and Covert Control have differential effects on child BMI Z-score one year later, which supports the idea that they should be treated as separate constructs. Prospective studies with a longer follow-up may elucidate the causal pathways between the various feeding styles and children's snacking behaviour and weight, as well as the moderating influences of psychological and behavioural control.