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Background Potato ( Solanum tuberosum L.) is the fourth largest food crop worldwide with significant economic value and importance for food security. Shade avoidance syndrome (SAS) considerably affects crop architecture and productivity in high-density planting systems; however, its molecular mechanisms in potato remain poorly understood. Methods Potato seedlings were subjected to four light treatments: white light (control, WL), low blue light (LBL, simulating blue light attenuation by plant canopies), low red: far-red ratio (WL + FR, simulating far-red reflection from neighboring plants), and their combination (LBL + FR, simulating complete plant shade environment). An integrated analysis including morphological characterization, leaf anatomical observations, hormone quantification, transcriptome sequencing, and metabolite profiling was performed to investigate plant responses to these conditions. Results Morphological analysis revealed that WL + FR primarily induced internode elongation (+ 20.0%) and leaf hyponasty, while LBL promoted stem elongation through increased node production (+ 36.3%). When combined, these signals (LBL + FR) synergistically enhanced stem elongation by 79.3%. Anatomical examination showed that LBL-treated leaves formed thickened palisade tissue layers (176.34 μm) with 6–7 layers of spongy tissue, whereas WL + FR resulted in thinner leaves (151.22 μm). Hormone profiling revealed that LBL increased gibberellic acid 3 (GA₃) and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) levels, while WL + FR further elevated IAA. LBL + FR markedly increased zeatin riboside (ZR) level, highlighting intricate hormonal crosstalk underlying shade-avoidance responses. Transcriptomic analysis identified 6,057 differentially expressed genes enriched in photosynthesis, hormone signaling, and carbohydrate metabolism pathways. A total of 1,168 differentially accumulated metabolites were detected across treatments, particularly organic acids and lipids associated with TCA (tricarboxylic acid) cycle and starch-sucrose metabolism. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) identified PHYTOCHROME A ( PHYA ) as the central hub gene coordinating SAS responses under combined light stress, contrasting with the PHYB -centric model established in Arabidopsis . Conclusions These findings provide comprehensive insights into potato-specific SAS regulatory networks and contribute to understanding crop-specific light sensing strategies, with potential applications for breeding shade-tolerant varieties and applications for optimizing plant architecture in high-density planting systems.

Ri (root-inducing) technology, mediated by Rhizobium rhizogenes , presents a promising approach for modifying plant architecture. However, a comprehensive understanding of how complete, integrated wild-type T-DNA alters plant physiology is still lacking, as most related research has focused on partial gene sets and single species. To address this gap, our study undertakes the first systematic, comparative analysis of Ri genotypes across the phylogenetically distant species of rose ( Rosa hybrida L.) and potato ( Solanum tuberosum L.). We aimed to correlate organ-specific T-DNA gene expression with hormonal profiles and growth traits, thereby identifying both the general mechanisms of the Ri phenotype and species-specific differences. Morphological, molecular, and hormonal data were collected from three plant organs—leaves, stems, and roots—and analyzed across multiple Ri genotypes generated by R. rhizogenes strain ATCC 15834. All the Ri genotypes contained T L (left T-DNA) but differed in the presence of T R (right T-DNA) sequences. Compared with the respective wild-type plants, the Ri genotypes consistently presented shorter internodes (ratio of 0.5–0.89), in most cases smaller leaves (ratio of 0.52–1.03) and greater in vitro root formation (ratio of 0.71–2.34), as well as diverse expression levels of the rol and aux2 genes, a consistently higher concentration of cytokinins and altered levels of stress-related hormones in specific organs. Correlation and principal component analyses confirmed the relationships among rol gene expression, root number, and reduced shoot growth, whereas hormone responses were species-specific. Together, these findings complement the characteristics of typical Ri plants shown in previous studies and provide new insights into the underlying hormonal and genetic mechanisms, indicating altered stress signaling pathways in Ri genotypes. The first evaluations of root hair data in Ri plants contradict assumptions about a hairy root phenotype but also indicate an increased root tip diameter (ratio of 1.06–1.23) compared with that of the wild-type. Together, these findings underscore the importance of balancing architectural benefits with potential physiological trade-offs in the use of Ri technology for future breeding applications.

Dual florigen response in potatoes The seasonality of plant developmental processes such as flowering and tuber formation is dependent largely on changes in day length. This response is mediated in Arabidopsis , tomato and rice plants by a mobile protein known as FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT), the main component of the long-range florigen signal. A study of the potato ( Solanum tuberosum ) now shows that floral and tuberization transitions are controlled by two different FT -like genes ( StSP3D and StSP6A ) that respond to independent environmental cues. Seasonal fluctuations in day length regulate important aspects of plant development such as the flowering transition or, in potato ( Solanum tuberosum ), the formation of tubers. Day length is sensed by the leaves, which produce a mobile signal transported to the shoot apex or underground stems to induce a flowering transition or, respectively, a tuberization transition. Work in Arabidopsis, tomato and rice ( Oryza sativa ) identified the mobile FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) protein as a main component of the long-range ‘florigen’, or flowering hormone, signal 1 , 2 , 3 . Here we show that expression of the Hd3a gene, the FT orthologue in rice, induces strict short-day potato types 4 to tuberize in long days. Tuber induction is graft transmissible and the Hd3a–GFP protein is detected in the stolons of grafted plants, transport of the fusion protein thus correlating with tuber formation. We provide evidence showing that the potato floral and tuberization transitions are controlled by two different FT -like paralogues (St SP3D and St SP6A ) that respond to independent environmental cues, and show that an autorelay mechanism involving CONSTANS modulates expression of the tuberization-control St SP6A gene.

Maintenance of plant physiological functions under drought stress is normally considered a positive feature as it indicates sustained plant health and growth. This study was conducted to investigate whether plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) Bacillus subtilis HAS31 has potential to maintain potato growth and yield under drought stress. We analyzed trends of chlorophyll concentration, photosynthesis process, relative water content, osmolytes, antioxidants enzymes and oxidative stress, relative growth rate, tuber and aboveground biomass production in two potato varieties, Santae (drought-tolerant) and PRI-Red (drought-sensitive). Plants of both genotypes were treated with 100 g of HAS31 inoculant at 10 days after germination and exposed to different soil relative water contents (SRWC), including 80 ± 5% (well watered), 60 ± 5% (moderate stress) and 40 ± 5% SRWC (severe stress) for 7 days at tuber initiation stage (30 days after germination). The drought stress reduced plant relative growth rate, biomass production, leaf area, number of leaves and tubers, tuber weight, and final yield. The drought-stressed plants showed decline in chlorophyll contents, membrane stability, leaf relative water contents and photosynthetic rate. Under drought stress, enzymatic activity of catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD) and superoxide dismutase (SOD), contents of total soluble sugars, soluble proteins and proline increased. The application of PGPR reduced the impact of drought and maintained higher growth and physio-chemical traits of the plants. The plants with PGPR application showed higher relative growth rate, dry matter production, leaf area, number of tubers, tuber weight and yield as compared to plants without PGPR. The PGPR-HAS31 treated plants maintained higher photosynthetic process, contents of chlorophyll, soluble proteins, total soluble sugars, and enzymatic activities of CAT, POD and SOD as compared to plants without PGPR. The results of the study suggest that plant growth regulators have ability to sustain growth and yield of potato under drought stress by maintaining physiological functions of the plants.

Global climate change accompanied by continuous increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration and temperature affects the growth and yield of important crops. The present study investigated the effect of elevated temperature and CO2 concentrations on the growth, yield, and photosynthesis of potato (Solanum tuberosum L. cv. Superior) crops using Korean Soil-Plant-Atmosphere-Research chambers that allow the regulation of temperature and CO2 concentration under daylight conditions. Based on the average temperature from 1991 to 2010 in the Jeonju area, South Korea, potato plants were exposed to four different conditions: ambient weather (400 μmol mol-1, aCaT), elevated temperature (+4°C, aCeT), elevated CO2 concentration (800 μmol mol-1, eCaT), and concurrently elevated CO2 concentration and temperature (eCeT). Under aCeT conditions, the temperature exceeded the optimal growth temperature range towards the late growth phase that decreased stomatal conductance and canopy net photosynthetic rate and subsequently reduced biomass and tuber yield. Stomatal conductance and chlorophyll concentration were lower under eCaT conditions than under aCaT conditions, whereas late-growth phase biomass and tuber yield were greater. Compared to other conditions, eCeT yielded a distinct increase in growth and development and canopy net photosynthetic rate during tuber initiation and bulking. Consequently, biomass and canopy net photosynthesis increased, and tuber yield increased by 20.3%, which could be attributed to the increased tuber size, rather than increased tuber number. Elevated CO2 reduced chlorophyll, magnesium, and phosphorus concentrations; reducing nitrogen concentration (by approximately 39.7%) increased the C:N ratio. The data indicate that future climate conditions will likely change nutrient concentration and quality of crops. The present study shows that while elevated temperature may negatively influence the growth and yield of potato crops, especially towards the late-growth phase, the concurrent and appropriate elevation of CO2 and temperature could promote balanced development of source and sink organs and positively effect potato productivity and quality.

The post-harvest phase of potato tuber dormancy and sprouting are essential in determining the economic value. The intricate transition from dormancy to active growth is influenced by multiple factors, including environmental factors, carbohydrate metabolism, and hormonal regulation. Well-established environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, and light play pivotal roles in these processes. However, recent research has expanded our understanding to encompass other novel influences such as magnetic fields, cold plasma treatment, and UV-C irradiation. Hormones like abscisic acid (ABA), gibberellic acid (GA), cytokinins (CK), auxin, and ethylene (ETH) act as crucial messengers, while brassinosteroids (BRs) have emerged as key modulators of potato tuber sprouting. In addition, jasmonates (JAs), strigolactones (SLs), and salicylic acid (SA) also regulate potato dormancy and sprouting. This review article delves into the intricate study of potato dormancy and sprouting, emphasizing the impact of environmental conditions, carbohydrate metabolism, and hormonal regulation. It explores how various environmental factors affect dormancy and sprouting processes. Additionally, it highlights the role of carbohydrates in potato tuber sprouting and the intricate hormonal interplay, particularly the role of BRs. This review underscores the complexity of these interactions and their importance in optimizing potato dormancy and sprouting for agricultural practices.

Potato seedlings were challenged with two parasites, namely, the fall armyworm and Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato , in combination and individually. Growth (plant height, stem diameter, total number of tubers and total tuber weight) and physiological function (photosynthesis rate, stomatal conductance, transpiration efficiency, the ratio of intercellular CO 2 concentration to ambient CO 2 concentration (Ci/Ca) and water use efficiency) were measured to assess the effects of the parasites on the plants. A correlation analysis of the measured growth and physiology parameters was done to understand the co-ordination of the parasite-attacked plant processes. Finally, plant metabolomic profiles were determined to assess the effects of the parasites on the metabolomes of the treated plants. Individually and in combination, the parasites had varied effects on the growth and physiology of the plants. The correlation analysis also revealed key associations between the growth and physiology aspects, and the parasites caused metabolomic reprogramming in the treated plants. Some of the results were expected but there were also unexpected outcomes. Surprisingly, the pest drastically reduced plant height when administered alone, but its ability to reduce height lessened when it was co-administered with the bacterium. The lessened ability of the pest to reduce plant height in the presence of the bacterium hints at parasite-to-parasite antagonism. This same pattern extended to stem diameter and total tuber weight. The pest individually reduced stem diameter and total tuber weight, but not when co-administered. This also hints at parasite-to-parasite antagonism. However, this matter warrants further investigation. In conclusion, the pest and the pathogenic bacterium induce morpho-physiological and metabolomic changes in potato seedlings, their effects on the measured parameters vary, and there is a possible parasite-to-parasite antagonism.

Potato common scab (CS) caused by Streptomyces scabiei is a severe disease that threatens tuber quality and its market value. To date, little is known about the mechanism regulating the resistance of potato to CS. In this study, we identified a presequence translocase-associated motor 16 gene from potato (designated StPAM16-1) that is involved in the response to the phytotoxin thaxtomin A (TA) secreted by S. scabiei. The StPAM16-1 protein was localized in the mitochondria, and the expression of the gene was upregulated in potato leaves treated with TA. The suppression of StPAM16-1 in potato led to enhanced resistance to TA and S. scabiei. Protein interaction analyses revealed that StPAM16-1 interacted with the subunit 5b of the COP9 signalosome complex (StCSN5). Similar to that of StPAM16-1, the expression levels of StCSN5 significantly increased in potato leaves treated with TA. These results indicated that StPAM16-1 acted as a negative regulator and was functionally associated with StCSN5 in the immune response of potato plants against CS. Our study sheds light on the molecular mechanism by which PAM16 participates in the plant immune response. Furthermore, both StPAM16-1 and StCSN5 could be potential target genes in the molecular breeding of potato cultivars with increased resistance to CS.

The potato production in semi-arid regions is often hampered by extreme temperatures, high solar radiation, and low soil fertility, which reduce photosynthetic performance and nutrient absorption. Therefore, it is crucial to identify cultivars that can tolerate such conditions without compromising their yield for sustainable production. To address this challenge, a two-year field trial (2023–2025) was conducted at the Horticulture Experimental Area of the Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan. Six commercial potato cultivars, including Sante, Musica, Sadaf, Lady Rosetta, Berna, and Kuroda, were evaluated in a randomized complete block design with four replications. The experimental site was characterized by sandy loam soil and moderate salinity in irrigation water. Measurements were taken on morphological, chlorophyll fluorescence, and nutrient uptake attributes and subjected to ANOVA to determine significant genotypic differences ( p  ≤ 0.05). Results revealed that cultivar Sadaf produced 25–80% higher tuber yield, and 5–30% greater nitrogen, while 20–60% greater phosphorus-uptake efficiency compared to the rest of cultivars. Musica also demonstrated a stable performance; however, Sante and Berna were constrained in physiological adaptability and nutrient-uptake efficiency. Principal component and cluster analyses confirmed these patterns, grouping Sadaf and Musica with favorable traits and placing Sante and Berna with stress-linked parameters. The improved performance in Sadaf might be linked with enhanced PSII quantum yield, proton flux, and chlorophyll content, indicating improved light energy utilization and nutrient assimilation. The study highlights developing climate-resilient and input-efficient cultivars for sustainable cultivation in semi-arid ecosystems.

Background Leaf spot caused by Alternaria alternata poses a major threat to potato production, yet the distinct impacts of its key toxins remain unresolved. This pathogen releases a range of secondary metabolites that interfere with normal leaf function and accelerate disease progression. Among them, alternariol (AOH) and tenuazonic acid (TeA) stand out as potent phytotoxins, known for triggering oxidative damage and weakening host tissues during infection. In the present work, we employed a multidisciplinary approach to investigate the physiological, biochemical, histochemical, ultrastructural, and gene-expression responses of potato leaves subjected to A. alternata and its host-specific toxins, AOH and TeA. Results Histochemical assays confirmed enhanced accumulation of ROS (H 2 O 2 , O 2 · − ), callose deposition, and lipid peroxidation. Pathogen infection induced necrotic lesions and chlorosis, with SEM and TEM analyses revealing distinct cytological damage. A. alternata and TeA caused extensive tissue collapse, membrane disruption, and organelle disintegration, whereas AOH was less destructive, primarily inducing vesicle accumulation and chloroplast disorganization. This represents the first ultrastructural evidence of AOH induced cytotoxicity in plant tissue, highlighting its underestimated role in plant stress. Antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and glutathione reductase (GR), along with defense related enzymes including phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), polyphenol oxidase (PPO), peroxidase (POX), exhibited significant induction, which was supported by Native-PAGE revealing treatment-specific isoform expression of SOD and CAT. SDS-PAGE demonstrated altered host protein profiles, with distinct induction of mid-molecular weight (40–50 kDa) and high-molecular weight (~ 75 kDa) proteins under toxin and pathogen stress, indicating activation of defense associated proteins. Gene expression analysis further demonstrated a clear temporal increase in Cu/Zn-SOD , CAT1 , and APX , with the strongest activation observed at 24–48 h, following the pattern: pathogen > TeA > AOH. Principal component analysis (PCA) accounted for 82.13% and 12.52% of the total variance across all measured parameters. Correlation and clustering analyses highlighted early pigment loss followed by delayed activation of oxidative stress-responsive enzymes, while exhibiting strong negative correlations between pigments and ROS, alongside positive correlations among stress-related enzymes. Conclusion The severity of oxidative damage followed the trend: pathogen > TeA > AOH. These findings reveal stress signatures and defense shifts, providing mechanistic insights into Alternaria pathogenesis and toxin-driven oxidative damage in potato. Advancing the understanding of host-pathogen-toxin dynamics and offering a foundation for resistance breeding in Solanaceous crops against leaf spot disease. Graphical Abstract