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Cordyceps sinensis is a mushroom that parasitizes larvae of Thitarodes (Hepialus) moths, which inhabit the alpine grasslands of the Tibetan Plateau. Tibetans have used the mushroom, which they call yartsa gunbu (\"summer-grass, winter-worm\") for many centuries, if not millennia. A 350% increase in the price paid to pickers between 1997 and 2004 has turned this tiny mushroom into the single most important source of cash for rural households in contemporary Tibet. On average, 40% of the rural cash income in the Tibet Autonomous Region is derived from its collection, which government statistics figured at 50,000 kg in 2004, contributing at least CNY (Chinese yuan) 1.8 billion (USD 225 million) to the Tibet Autonomous Region's GDP. A dramatic fungal commodification of the rural Tibetan economy is occurring, as the income from sale of Cordyceps often accounts for 70%-90% of a family's annual cash income in areas where it grows. The ever-increasing harvesting pressure raises the question of sustainability. The fact that Cordyceps has been collected for centuries and is still common argues for its resilience, but the lack of harvest studies for C sinensis precludes a definite answer as to whether the harvest can be sustained at its current level.

Psilocybe, with 53 known hallucinogenic species in Mexico, is the most important and diverse group of sacred mushrooms used by Mexican indigenous cultures. Psilocybe caerulescens, known by the present-day Nahuatl Indians as teotlaquilnanácatl, is hypothesized to be the ceremonially-used teonanácatl mushroom cited by Sahagún in the 16th century, the true identity of which has remained obscure for centuries. Correcting a widely disseminated error derived from early published information on Mexican hallucinogenic mushrooms, emphasis is placed on the fact that Panaeolus species have never been used traditionally in Mexico. Reports of the use of species of Amanita, Clavaria, Conocybe, Cordyceps, Didyophora, Elaphomyces, Gomphus, Lycoperdon, Psathyrella, and Stropharia as sacred or narcotic mushrooms are discussed. A brief history of the discovery of hallucinogenic mushrooms in Mexico is presented, as well as notes on their taxonomy, distribution, and traditional use in Mexico. /// Psilocybe, con 53 especies alucinógenas conocidas en México, es el grupo más importante y más diverso de hongos sagrados usados por las culturas indígenas mexicanas. Se propone aquí que Psilocybe caerulescens, nombrado por los nahuatls de hoy día teotlaquilnanácatl, es el hongo ceremonial teonanácatl citado por Sahagún en el sigio XVI, cuya identidad verdadera permanece oscura desde hace siglos. A fin de corregir un error muy diseminado derivado de los primeras datos publicados sobre los hongos alucinógenos mexicanos, se hará hincapié en el hecho de que las especies Paneolus nunca han sido usadas tradicionalmente en México. Se discutirán aqui informes sobre el uso de especies de Amanita, Clavaria, Conocybe, Cordyceps, Didyophora, Elaphomyces, Gomphus, Lycoperdon, Psathyrella y Stropharia corno hongos sagrados o narcóticos, y se presentará también una breve historia del descubrimiento de hongos alucinógenos en México, corno también algunos datos sobre su taxonomía, su distribución, y su uso tradicional en México.

This paper presents an historical overview of wild mushroom commerce in Italy, with a focus on recent trends in the production of porcini (Boletus edulis and closely allied species). Over the past century, two major trends—nationalization and globalization—have been apparent in the wild mushroom commerce of Italy. First, a simplified national mushroom menu has emerged through processes of governmental regulation and culinary fashion, but it has come at the expense of differing, localized mushroom traditions which may suffer under the European Union's free trade principles. Second, Italy has emerged as a focal point of a global market for a small number of mushroom species—particular porcini. While the name porcini has become synonymous with Italian cuisine, and in spite of a vibrant tradition of recreational mushroom collecting in Italy, most of the porcini commercially available in Italy or exported by Italy are no longer of Italian origin. Porcini and other mushrooms now flow into Italy from all over the world—especially from China and eastern Europe—and are then often exported as \"Italian porcini.\" This globalization of the wild mushroom trade, while offering significant income to rural producers and processors around the globe, has other effects as well, for example, a kind of national branding as \"Italian\" of globally-produced products, of which porcini is one, that is in direct opposition to some of the European Union's rules for regional denominations. /// Questo articolo presenta una panoramica storica sul commercio dei funghi spontanei in Italia, con particolare riguardo alle recenti tendenze nella produzione dei porcini (Boletus edulis e specie affini). Nello scorso secolo si sono osservate due tendenze principali—di nazionalizzazione e di globalizzazione—nel commercio dei funghi spontanei in Italia. In primo luogo si è affermata nel territorio nazionale una tradizione limitata al consumo di un numero contenuto di specie, sia per effetto di alcune normative che di mode culinarie, ma ciò è avvenuto a discapito di tradizioni locali più ricche, che potrebbero ulteriormente risentire dei principi per il libero scambio all'interno dell'Unione Europea. In secondo luogo, l'Italia si è posta in evidenza come un punto nodale per il mercato globale di alcune specie fungine, in particolare dei porcini. Nonostante quest'ultimo termine sia tradizionalmente associato alla cucina italiana, e nonostante esista in Italia una vivace e radicata tradizione nella raccolta amatoriale dei funghi, la maggior parte dei porcini ivi commercializzati (allo stato fresco, essiccati o variamente conservati) o esportati verso altri paesi non sono più di origine locale. I porcini e altre specie fungine giungono attualmente in Italia da ogni parte del mondo—in modo particolare dalla Cina e dall'Europa orientale—e sono successivamente spesso esportati come \"prodotti Italiani.\" Questo processo di globalizzazione del mercato dei funghi spontanei, pur offrendo un significativo introito ai raccoglitori e commercianti rurali su tutto il globo, è responsabile di altri effetti, come per l'appunto una sorta di marchio nazionale \"Italiano\" su alcuni prodotti di provenienza globale, come per l'appunto i porcini, cosa che contrasta con alcune delle regole dell'Unione Europea in materia di denominazioni regionali.

More than 200 species of wild edible mushrooms are consumed in Mexico, and over 100 are sold in local, regional, and wholesale markets. This paper analyzes general trends in the commercialization of wild edible mushrooms at twelve markets in central Mexico, where at least 90 species are sold and more than 100 local names were registered. The paper then focuses its analysis on the traditional market at Ozumba (state of Mexico) near Izta-Popo and Zoquiapan national parks. In 2006,411 stands selling more than 60 mushroom species were sampled throughout the year to record information on the vendors and the species they sold. The greatest diversity of species was recorded in July and August. More than 90% of the wild mushroom vendors were women, and 64% were 40 to 60 years old. The economic value of wild mushrooms in some regions of Mexico appears to contribute to the maintenance of traditional ethnobiological knowledge, generally observed to be in overall decline. /// En México, más de 200 especies de hongos comestibles silvestres son consumidas, de las cuales más de 100 son comercializadas en mercados locales, regionales y de mayoristas. El presente artículo analiza las tendencias générales en la comercialización de los hongos silvestres comestibles en doce mercados de la parte Central de México, donde al menos 90 especies son comercializadas y se registraron más de 100 nombres comunes. Posteriormente el artfculo enfoca su análisis en el mercado tradicional de Ozumba, estado de México cerca de los parques nacionales Izta-Popo y Zoquiapan. Con la finalidad de registrar información relacionada con los vendedores y las especies en venta, en 2006, se muestrearon 411 puestos los cuales comercializaron más de 60 especies de hongos a lo largo del año. La mayor diversidad de especies se registró en Julio y Agosto. Más del 90% de las vendedoras fueron mujeres y 64% tenían entre 40 y 60 años de edad. A pesar de la gran relevancia ecológica y cultural de los hongos silvestres comestibles en México, el conocimiento tradicional ancestral relacionado con los hongos parece estar declinando en términos generales. Sin embargo, la importancia económica de los hongos comestibles en algunas regiones contribuye para el mantenimiento de estos conocimientos ancestrales.

Bolete Productivity of Cistaceous Scrublands in Northwestern Spain . Cistaceous scrublands dominated by Cistus ladanifer and Halimium lasianthum are widely distributed in northwestern Spain and are known to harbor the popular edible mushrooms Boletus edulis and B. aereus . As commercial harvest of these species is an important activity in Spain’s forests, in some cases generating greater revenue than timber production, we tried to determine whether there is commercial potential for bolete harvest in young cistaceous scrublands. Transects of 50 m × 2 m were randomly established in cistaceous scrublands and bolete yield was measured. High production of these valuable mushrooms was associated with 3-year-old plants, a much earlier onset than observed for Pinus and Quercus stands. Management recommendations for the studied scrub ecosystems are proposed that take into account the economic value of the mushrooms.

Matsutake are economically important wild mushrooms that contribute greatly to rural livelihoods and local economies in many parts of the northern hemisphere. This paper provides an overview of the matsutake trade in Yunnan province, China, where increased attention is being given to the sustainable utilization of nontimber forest products. Topics covered include the distribution, production, and export of matsutake in Yunnan, and the market chain for matsutake in Yunnan, whereby matsutake are harvested from the wild and exported to Japan within 48 hours.

In this paper, we characterize the harvest and sale of wild mushrooms in Javier Mina (Tlaxcala state, Mexico) based on observations made during visits to that community during the rainy seasons of 1995 and 2001. While there, we visited the forests with various families of mushroom gatherers and also carried out 16 visits to a local mushroom broker to obtain information on the buying and selling of the mushrooms, including a list of the prices per kilo of the species that are sold commercially. Boletus cf. pinophilus, Lyophyllum cf. decastes, Hebeloma aff. mesophaeum and the Amanite caesarea complex were the highest-priced species, and were those collected in the greatest amounts. Our observations indicate that the gathering of mushrooms, a traditional activity among the people of Javier Mina, contributes, through the sale of the mushrooms, to the income of the community during the rainy season. /// Recolección y venta de hongos silvestres en una comunidad de Tlaxcala, México. El objetivo de este trabajo es describir el proceso de recolección y venta de hongos silvestres en Javier Mina, Tlaxcala. Para describir estas actividades se realizaron visitas a los bosques con varias familias recolectoras de hongos durante las épocas de lluvias de 1995 y 2001. Además, se realizaron 16 visitas a un distribuidor local para registrar información con respecte a la compra y venta de los hongos. Se obtuvo un Jistado de los precios por kilo de los hongos que se comercializan. Boletus cf. pinophilus, Lyophyllum cf. decastes, Hebeloma aff. mesophaeum y Amanite caesarea complex fueron los hongos recolectados en mayor cantidad durante este estudio, mismos que tuvieron los precios mas altos de compra-venta. Se conduye que la recolección de hongos es una actividad tradicional para la gente de Javier Mina; sin embargo, la venta de éstos, contribuye a la obtención de ingresos durante la temporada de lluvias.

This paper on the most significant edible wild mushrooms of Madagascar is organized in the following four categories: (1) mushrooms of introduced eucalypt plantations, (2) mushrooms of introduced pine plantations, (3) mushrooms of native forests and woodlands, and (4) mushrooms found in fields, agricultural waste and other altered, non-forest habitats. Eucalyptus robusta plantations yield by far the bulk of edible mushrooms that are sold, especially species of Russula and Cantharellus. Some Suillus species of northern hemisphere origin have been introduced with pine plantations and are locally important, forming the basis of a small canning industry. In native woodland areas on the central plateau, several ectomycorrhizal mushrooms—very similar to those on the African mainland—are collected and consumed. With the exception of the widely marketed Cantharellus platyphyllus ssp. bojeriensis, these are only of local importance in the villages and smaller markets of the area. Denser forests in the mountains or on the east coast as well as manmade habitats such as fields, pastures, and agricultural wastes are searched for saprobic mushrooms of various types. Some of these saprobic mushrooms show considerable potential for cultivation. The variety of ectomycorrhizal mushrooms found in eucalypt plantations is unprecedented outside of Australia and, for the most part, do not appear to be of Australian origin. Possible reasons for this are briefly discussed. Two economically important species, Russula prolifica sp. nov. and R. edulis sp. nov., are newly described. /// Les champignons comestibles sauvages de Madagascar sont présentés d'après leur appartenance à quatre habitats différents: plantations exotiques d'Eucalyptus, plantations exotiques de pins, savanes et forêts indigènes et, enfin, champs cultivées, prairies et déchets agronomiques. Les plantations d'Eucalyptus (en particulier d'E. robusta) produisent de loin la majorité des champignons comestibles mis en vente, surtout chanterelles et russules. Quelques bolets du genre Suillus, manifestement introduits de l'hémisphère nord, pullulent localement sous des pins importés et font l'objet d'une industrie artisanale de conserves. Sur le Haut Plateau, plusieurs espèces de champignons ectomycorrhiziques, très similaires à celles décrites du continent africain, sont ramassées et consommées dans l'aire des savanes. A l'exception du Cantharellus platyphyllus ssp. bojeriensis — espèce très commune sur les marchés et le long des routes du Haut Plateau, ces différentes espèces ne représentent qu'un intérêt local. Les forêts denses d'altitude ou le long de la côte Est, ainsi que les habitats créés par l'homme (champs, prairies de pâturage, déchets de l'agriculture) sont explorées à la recherche d'un nombre de champignons comestibles saprophytes, dont certains à potentiel très prometteur pour la domestication. La diversité des champignons ectomycorrhiziques associés aux plantations d'eucalyptus dépasse de loin celle observée dans les autres pays ou les eucalyptus ont été introduits par l'homme. L'auteur discute sommairement quelques éléments qui ne semblent pas favoriser l'hypothèse d'une éventuelle origine australienne pour la plupart de ces champignons. Deux russules comestibles représentant un intérêt économique, R. prolifica sp. nov. et R. edulis sp. nov., sont sommairement décrites comme nouvelles.

The Houses That Matsutake Built . In the mountains of northwest Yunnan, China, a valuable mushroom, matsutake or song rong ( Tricholoma matsutake ) was commodified in the 1980s. Since that time, it has been exported in large quantities to Japan. The sale of matsutake now contributes more to the income of Shangri-la County (Diqing Autonomous Tibetan Prefecture) than any other crop, including timber and livestock. During the 1980s and 1990s, villagers in this remote region used their mushroom earnings to build spacious, beautiful new houses in the traditional local (Kham) style, and in some cases to buy motor vehicles or open businesses. In villages with access to productive matsutake habitat, virtually every household was able to build a new house; entire villages were transformed. During the 1990s, several villages developed locally based management regimes to enhance production and to address the problems and conflicts that arose from the harvest of such a valuable product. More recently, government agencies and NGOs have played a highly visible role in promoting “sustainable” harvest policies. The implications of their involvement are briefly examined and the future of matsutake harvest in Yunnan is discussed.

Ethnomycological investigation was carried out in Burkina Faso, West Africa, using standardized interviews focused on 40 representative mushroom species assembled in a traveling herbarium (photographs plus preserved specimens). A total of 540 informants from 18 localities representing three main ethnic groups—Mòosé, Bobo, and Gouin—were interviewed, though the bulk of those interviewed were Mòosé (or Mossi) from the more populous central region of the country. Among the study species, as many as 24 were considered edible by the different ethnic groups; a few medicinal uses also were noted. The edibility of a common Chlorophyllum species is confirmed for the three ethnic groups. Mushroom nomenclature is not well developed in any of the three groups as evidenced by the fact that many mushrooms, including some common edible species, do not appear to have specific local names, but are instead simply referred to by a general term for \"mushroom.\" Preliminary observations about inter-ethnic variation in recognition, naming, and appreciation of mushrooms are noted. Older people recognized many more mushroom species than did younger people, and women appeared to be slightly more knowledgeable about mushrooms than men. The most important finding is that the gathering and consumption of wild edible mushrooms seems to be dying out in Burkina Faso, especially in the central part of the country, apparently because of declining mushroom populations resulting from disappearing forest habitats.