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Background Epidemiological studies of long-term exposure to outdoor air pollution have consistently documented associations with morbidity and mortality. Air pollution exposure in these epidemiological studies is generally assessed at the residential address, because individual time-activity patterns are seldom known in large epidemiological studies. Ignoring time-activity patterns may result in bias in epidemiological studies. The aims of this paper are to assess the agreement between exposure assessed at the residential address and exposures estimated with time-activity integrated and the potential bias in epidemiological studies when exposure is estimated at the residential address. Main body We reviewed exposure studies that have compared residential and time-activity integrated exposures, with a focus on the correlation. We further discuss epidemiological studies that have compared health effect estimates between the residential and time-activity integrated exposure and studies that have indirectly estimated the potential bias in health effect estimates in epidemiological studies related to ignoring time-activity patterns. A large number of studies compared residential and time-activity integrated exposure, especially in Europe and North America, mostly focusing on differences in level. Eleven of these studies reported correlations, showing that the correlation between residential address-based and time-activity integrated long-term air pollution exposure was generally high to very high ( R  > 0.8). For individual subjects large differences were found between residential and time-activity integrated exposures. Consistent with the high correlation, five of six identified epidemiological studies found nearly identical health effects using residential and time-activity integrated exposure. Six additional studies in Europe and North America showed only small to moderate potential bias (9 to 30% potential underestimation) in estimated exposure response functions using residence-based exposures. Differences of average exposure level were generally small and in both directions. Exposure contrasts were smaller for time-activity integrated exposures in nearly all studies. The difference in exposure was not equally distributed across the population including between different socio-economic groups. Conclusions Overall, the bias in epidemiological studies related to assessing long-term exposure at the residential address only is likely small in populations comparable to those evaluated in the comparison studies. Further improvements in exposure assessment especially for large populations remain useful.

The most spectacular change in Sub-Saharan Africa over the last few decades has been the dramatic demographic shift from rural areas to cities. As a result, more than 50% of the city streets in the region have no names or addresses, and the problem is particularly acute in the poorest neighborhoods. This book reviews the role of addressing within the array of urban management tools and explores the links between addressing and civic identity, urban information systems, support to municipal services, tax systems, land management and tenure issues, slum upgrading, support to concessionary services, and economic development. It outlines current and future applications, highlights practices in many African countries, and offers a methodological guide for implementing street addressing initiatives which is widely applicable in other parts of the world.

Related to the letters of an alphabet, entropy means the average number of binary digits required for the transmission of one character. Checking tables of statistical data, one finds that, in the first position of the numbers, the digits 1 to 9 occur with different frequencies. Correspondingly, from these probabilities, a value for the Shannon entropy H can be determined as well. Although in many cases, the Newcomb–Benford Law applies, distributions have been found where the 1 in the first position occurs up to more than 40 times as frequently as the 9. In this case, the probability of the occurrence of a particular first digit can be derived from a power function with a negative exponent p > 1. While the entropy of the first digits following an NB distribution amounts to H = 2.88, for other data distributions (diameters of craters on Venus or the weight of fragments of crushed minerals), entropy values of 2.76 and 2.04 bits per digit have been found.

Postal codes are often the only geographic identifier available for assigning contextual or environmental information to a study population. This analysis assesses the influence of three factors-delivery mode type (mode of postal delivery), representative point type (source of latitude-longitude coordinates), and community size-on the accuracy of postal code spatial assignment. PCCF+ (Postal Code Conversion File Plus) was used to assign delivery mode type, representative point type and community size to each individual in the 2011 Census of Canada. A sample (n = 1,004) was randomly selected with a minimum of 90 observations for each category of those three factors. Based on the address information of individuals in the sample, measures of positional accuracy for geocoding from residential postal codes (PCCF+) versus reference locations as determined by full street addresses (Google Maps) were calculated using a geographic information system. Accuracy was measured as the distance that the geocoded position differed from the full street address. Positional accuracy was related primarily to mode of postal delivery. Rural and mixed (partly urban, partly rural) modes had much higher geocoding error than did urban modes. Rural and small-town Canada and latitude and longitude based on dissemination area centroids had low accuracy, largely because of their close relationship to rural and mixed modes of delivery. The accuracy of geocoding from postal codes can vary. Geocoding imprecision may result in misclassification, depending on the spatial resolution of the environmental or contextual measures. The spatial resolution required for a study helps to identify subpopulations that should be excluded because of inadequate positional accuracy.

Editor's Note: A need exists within environmental health agencies to increase their capacity to perform in an environment of diminishing resources. With limited resources and increasing demands, we need to seek new approaches to the practice of environmental health. Acutely aware of these challenges, the Journal publishes the Building Capacity column to educate, reinforce, and build upon successes within the profession using technology to improve efficiency and extend the impact of environmental health agencies.

This Note presents a study of obstacles to employment faced by homeless job applicants and offers potential solutions. Homeless job applicants confront discrimination when they provide the address of a shelter or do not have an address to provide on applications. Advocates should seek to protect homeless job applicants by encouraging businesses, nonprofits, and government agencies to provide homeless applicants with addresses or P.O. boxes. Most significantly, the proposed \"Ban the Address\" campaign would discourage employers from inquiring about an applicant's address or residency history until after granting a provisional offer of employment. Advocacy efforts such as these can serve as a foundation for successful legal claims under new homeless person's bills of rights, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, and the Americans with Disabilities Act. This Note explains why requesting residency information might be deemed illegal under both state and federal causes of action. A combination of both legal and nonlegal tactics has the best chance of permitting homeless job applicants to obtain employment and to regain self-sufficiency.

Vagueness is a ubiquitous phenomenon in language. It refers to the finite area and lack of specification of its boundary, and differs from ambiguity. All vague terms share three characteristics: indeterminacy of meaning; determinacy of meaning; and variation. Ambiguity may cause problem or misunderstanding in talking, while vagueness can solve problem and provide more choices for us. Some Chinese address terms are vague to some extent, and the extensive use of them is the most evident manifestation of vagueness. This paper illustrates the vagueness in Chinese address terms particularly with abundant examples.

The address is quasi geospatial data representing the location. There are various ways of address formats, addressing and managing addresses around the world. The Korean address system has been changed from the area-based address system to the street-based address system, which has been implemented since 2014. According to the Ministry of the Interior and Security of Korea, the street-based address aims at the convenience of directions, rapid response to emergencies, reduction of logistics costs, and strengthening national competitiveness. However, there are limitations in Korea's street-based address system. In this study, we define the components of address systems and analyse the street-based address system of Korea based on the defined elements.