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Pollination by fungus gnats (Mycetophilidae and Sciaridae) is uncommon, but is nevertheless known to occur in 20 genera among eight angiosperm families. Because many fungus gnat-pollinated plants possess a dark red floral display, we hypothesized that fungus gnat pollination is more widespread among plants with similar floral display than currently known. We thus studied the pollination biology of flowers with dark red pigmentation in five families, focusing particularly on plants having small, flat, actinomorphic flowers with exposed nectaries and short stamens, because these floral characteristics mirror those of a known fungus gnat-pollinated genus (Mitella). We observed daytime and night-time floral visitors for a total of 194.5 h in Aucuba japonica (Garryaceae), Euonymus spp. (Celastraceae), Disanthus cercidifolius (Hamamelidaceae), Micranthes fusca (Saxifragaceae) and Streptopus streptopoides (Liliaceae). Visitors were categorized into functional groups, and a pollination importance index (PII) was calculated for each functional group based on visitation frequency, pollen load and behaviour on flowers. Fungus gnats were dominant among the 1762 insects observed (36-92 % depending on the plant species) and were the most important pollinators among all plants studied (PII: 0.529-1). Fungus gnat visits occurred during the daytime and, more frequently, at dusk. Most often, pollen grains became clumped on the ventral side of the head and/or thorax as the short-proboscid fungus gnats foraged on nectar and came into contact with anthers located close to the flower base. Pollination by fungus gnats is probably more common than previously thought, especially in habitats similar to those of the plants studied (moist forest understorey, streamside or subalpine meadow) where fungus gnats are abundant year-round. Our results further suggest that there may be a previously unnoticed association between fungus gnat pollination and dark red coloration, and a shared overall floral architecture among the plants studied.

The pollen morphology of 54 species and one variety of seven genera in Polygonatae including Clintonia, Disporopsis, Disporum, Maianthemum, Polygonatum, Smilacina and Streptopus was observed and studied in detail; of these, nine species were reported for the first time. Our results showed that the surface ornamentation of pollen grains of the studied materials could be divided into seven types, namely gemmate, granulate-foveolate, perforate, reticulate, rugulate, rugulate-perforate and verrucate. In line with previous studies, we believe that (i) Smilacina ginfushanicum should be classified into the genus Heteropolygonatum rather than the genus Smilacina; (ii) Polygonatum should be divided into section Polygonatum and section Verticillata; (iii) Smilacina and Maianthemum should be combined as one genus, i.e. Maianthemum sensu lato; and (iv) Clintonia, Disporum and Streptopus should be separated from the tribe Polygonatae.

The occurrence of mountain plant species in the Polish lowlands has been at the centre of attention of many botanists. In 2008-2011 we carried out field studies aimed at describing a new lowland population of White Twisted-stalk S. amplexifolius discovered in 2008. We focused on the following aims: to determine the current status of the lowland population of S. amplexifolius; to characterize phytocenoses and habitat conditions in which the species occur; to identify factors that can potentially pose a threat on the population and to propose guidelines for its protection. The newly discovered population is located in the Trójca Forest District (50º 38.737’ N; 18º 48.945’ E), forest department 61L. The main part of the population (ca. 70%) occupies an area of approximately 100 m2. Currently, to protect the population from grazing, the whole area (about 0.25 ha) has been surrounded by metal mesh fence. The population occurs within a poorly developed patch of Fraxino- Alnetum. It contains 107 branched and fruiting individuals of S. amplexifolius and 83 smaller plants (branchless and sporadically fruiting). The number of fruits per plant varies between 6 and 20. One fruit contains an average of 5 seeds (a maximum of 12 seeds and a minimum of 3 seeds per fruit). The occurrence of numerous Padus serotina seedlings and young plants is recorded within the site. Human-related factors have caused substantial changes in the water relations and, subsequently, also in the species composition of these plant communities. The population of S. amplexifolius within the described site seems to be in good condition and develops normally.

The typification of eleven Linnaean names of taxa belonging to the current circumscription of Liliaceae is discussed. Lectotypes are designated from the Linnaean herbarium at LINN (Lilium bulbiferum, L. candidum, L. martagon), the Burser herbarium at UPS (Bulbocodium serotinum, Fritillaria pyrenaica, Lilium bulbiferum), the Van Royen Herbarium at L (Fritillaria persica, Lilium chalcedonicum, Uvularia amplexifolia), the Clifford Herbarium at BM (Lilium pomponium) and from the Sloane herbarium in BM-SL (Bulbocodium autumnale). A specimen in BM is designated as the neotype of Lilium camschatcense. Each type choice maintains the present usage of the corresponding Linnaean name.

The etiology of a previously unknown disease of Streptopus amplexifolius (L.) DC. (twisted stalk) that occurred in south central Alaska was elucidated. Symptomatic plants with yellow-green dashes and streaks on their leaves contained distinct viruses belonging to the family Potyviridae and (or) tentatively to the family Flexiviridae genus Carlavirus . Each virus' identity was confirmed by a combination of morphology, serology (ELISA and (or) Western analysis), and sequences obtained from reverse transcriptase - polymerase chain reaction products previously generated by potyvirus- or carlavirus-specific primers. The mechanical transmission of particles (purified from twisted stalk as a mixture of both viruses or as a single preparation of each virus) to S. amplexifolius, Chenopodium amaranticolor Coste et Reyn, and Chenopodium quinoa Willd., fulfilled Koch's postulates. The relatively high incidence of infected plants and associated severe symptoms in populations from several sites in south central Alaska gave evidence that native plants are susceptible to, and are adversely affected by viral diseases. Even though Streptopus species grow throughout the temperate regions of the world, this is the first report of a pathogen(s) infecting plants in the genus Streptopus.

To evaluate the ecological importance of differences in underground morphology, ten individuals per species were excavated for three species pairs in a coniferous forest in the Cascade Mountains of Oregon. The two species of each pair had similar aboveground morphologies, divergent underground morphologies, and different geographical ranges and habitat relationships. Erythronium montanum and Clintonia uniflora have one or two elliptic leaves per ramet but E. montanum has a short, segmented rhizome and only one ramet per genet, whereas C uniflora spreads vegetatively via long rhizomes. Streptopus roseus and Smilacina stellata have similar, determinant aerial shoots and spread by long rhizomes, but S stellata has a dimorphic root and rhizome system that allows it to occupy a wider range of habitats Rubus pedatus and Rubus lasiococcus both spread via stolons, but R lasiococcus has deeper roots and can occupy drier habitats than R pedatus The differences in underground morphology within the species pairs are consistent with the species' geographical ranges and habitats occupied, and may be causal in determining distribution patterns.