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Background Styrax , a vital raw material for shipbuilding, construction, perfumes, and drugs, represents the largest and most diverse genus in the Styracaceae. However, there is a relative scarcity of research on Styrax , particularly in evolution and genetics. Therefore, this study conducted comparative and evolutionary analyses of the chloroplast genomes of five rare Styrax species ( S. argentifolius , S. buchananii , S. chrysocarpus , S. finlaysonianus , and S. rhytidocarpus ). Results The results indicated that, despite high levels of conservation in chloroplast genome structure among these species, specific mutation hotspot regions exist, particularly involving the expansion and contraction of the IR region. Additionally, evidence of positive selection was detected in eight genes ( atpB , ccsA , ndhD , petA , rbcL , rpoC1 , ycf1 , and ycf2 ), which may be associated with adaptive evolution in response to environmental changes. Phylogenetic analysis revealed conflicts between trees constructed based on coding sequences and complete chloroplast genomes for several species, which were similar to previous phylogenetic studies. Conclusion This study underscores the importance of increasing sample sizes to enhance the accuracy of phylogenetic analyses and provides a new perspective on understanding the adaptive evolution of Styrax species. These findings are not only important for the conservation and sustainable use of Styrax , but also provide valuable insights for research in plant evolution and ecology within the genus.

The antinociceptive activity of the flower extracts of Styrax japonicus was confirmed in our previous study. However, the key compound for analgesia has not been distinguished, and the corresponding mechanism is obscure. In this study, the active compound was isolated from the flower by multiple chromatographic techniques and structurally illustrated using spectroscopic methods and referring to the related literature. The antinociceptive activity of the compound and the underlying mechanisms were investigated using animal tests. The active compound was determined to be jegosaponin A (JA), which showed significant antinociceptive responses. JA was also shown to possess sedative and anxiolytic activities but no anti-inflammatory effect, implying the association of the antinociceptive effects with the sedative and anxiolytic activities. Further antagonists and calcium ionophore tests showed that the antinociceptive effect of JA was blocked by flumazenil (FM, antagonist for GABA-A receptor) and reversed by WAY100635 (WAY, antagonist for 5-HT1A receptor). Contents of 5-HT and its metabolite (5-HIAA) increased significantly in the hippocampus and striatum tissues after JA administration. The results indicated that the antinociceptive effect of JA was regulated by the neurotransmitter system, especially GABAergic and serotonergic systems.

Several taxonomic treatments of Styrax (Styracaceae) exist in regional floras of Asia, but the Asian species of the genus have not been comprehensively revised since 1907. A treatment of the Asian taxa of S. series Cyrta with imbricate floral aestivation was accomplished in 2003. To complete the taxonomic revision of S. series Cyrta, we conducted a taxonomic revision of the species of the series with valvate aestivation of the corolla lobes. Our revision comprises 11 species with a combined distribution from eastern India through southern China and Malesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia, although the group is absent from the Philippines. We resurrected S. bracteolatus, S. rubifolius, and S. warburgii as species to be recognized, and we corrected the misapplication of S. finlaysonianus, previously used for a species in S. series Benzoin. Styrax finlaysonianus and S. warburgii are segregated from the broader concept of S. agrestis recognized in prior treatments. The circumscriptions of the heretofore poorly delimited species S. confusus, S. faberi, and S. fortunei are clarified and their possible introgressants discussed. We observed unique combinations of characters in some problematic specimens whose taxonomic status remains unresolved because only single specimens with either flowers or fruits were available; at least some of these may represent undescribed species. Lectotypes are designated for Cyrta agrestis, S. argyi, S. bracteolatus, S. calvescens, S. casearifolius, S. confusus var. microphyllus, S. dasyanthus, S. dasyanthus var. cinerascens, S. faberi, S. finlaysonianus, S. formosanus, S. fortunei, S. fukienensis, S. henryi, S. henryi var. microcalyx, S. iopilinus, S. philadelphoides, S. rostratus, S. rubifolius, S. serrulatus var. agrestis, and S. virgatus. A neotype is designated for S. warburgii. Keys, descriptions, distribution maps, and conservation assessments are provided for all species. Styrax agrestis, S. bracteolatus, and S. rubifolius are rare endemics of conservation concern, with highly restricted distributions. Existen varios tratamientos taxonómicos de Styrax (Styracaceae) en floras regionales de Asia, pero las especies asiáticas del género no han sido revisadas en profundidad desde 1907. Se realizó un tratamiento de los taxa asiáticos de S. series Cyrta con estivación imbricada en 2003. Para completar la revisión taxonómica de S. series Cyrta, hicimos una revisión taxonómica de las especies de la serie con estivación valvar de la corola. Nuestra revisión comprende 11 especies con una distribución combinada desde el este de India hasta el sur de China Malasia, Melanesia y Micronesia, aunque el grupo está ausente de Filipinas. Recuperamos S. bracteolatus, S. rubifolius, y S. warburgii como especies reconocidas, y corregimos la mala aplicación de S. finlaysonianus, previamente usad para una especie en S. series Benzoin. Styrax finlaysonianus y S. warburgii son segregadas del amplio concepto de S. agrestis reconocido en tratamientos anteriores. Se clarifican las circunscripciones de las hasta ahora pobremente delimitadas especies S. confusus, S. faberi, y S. fortunei y se discuten sus posibles introgresores. Observamos combinaciones únicas de caracteres en algunos especímenes problemáticos cuyo estatus taxonómico queda sin resolver porque solo estuvieron disponibles especímenes únicos en los que estaban disponibles las flores o los frutos; al menos algunos de estos pueden representar especies no descritas. Se designan lectotipos par Cyrta agrestis, S. argyi, S. bracteolatus, S. calvescens, S. casearifolius, S. confusus var. microphyllus, S. dasyanthus, S. dasyanthus var. cinerascens, S. faberi, S. finlaysonianus, S. formosanus, S. fortunei, S. fukienensis, S. henryi, S. henryi var. microcalyx, S. iopilinus, S. philadelphoides, S. rostratus, S. rubifolius, S. serrulatusy var. agrestis, y S. virgatus. Se designa un neotipo para S. warburgii. Se aportan claves, descripciones, mapas de distribución, y evaluaciones de conservación para todas las especies. Styrax agrestis, S. bracteolatus, y S. rubifolius son endemismos raros de preocupación por su conservación, con distribuciones altamente restringidas.

As the germ of a highly productive oil tree species, Styrax tonkinensis seeds have great potential to produce biodiesel and they have marvelous fatty acid (FA) composition. In order to explore the molecular regulatory mechanism of FA biosynthesis in S. tonkinensis seeds after methyl jasmonate (MJ) application, transcriptomic and metabolomic techniques were adopted so as to dissect the genes that are related to FA biosynthesis and their expression levels, as well as to discover the major FA concentration and composition. The results revealed that 200 μmol/L of MJ (MJ200) increased the crude fat (CF) mass fraction and generated the greatest impact on CF accumulation at 70 days after flowering. Twenty FAs were identified, among which palmitic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid and linolenic acid were the major FAs, and the presence of MJ200 affected their concentrations variously. MJ200 could enhance FA accumulation through elevating the activity of enzymes that are related to FA synthesis. The number of differentially expressed genes increased with the seeds’ development in general. Fatty acid biosynthesis, the biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acid, fatty acid elongation and glycerolipid metabolism were the main lipid metabolism pathways that were found to be involved. The changes in the expression levels of EAR, KAR, accA, accB and SAD2 were consistent with the changes in the CF mass fraction, indicating that they are important genes in the FA biosynthesis of S. tonkinensis seeds and that MJ200 promoted their expression levels. In addition, bZIP (which was screened by weighted correlation network analysis) also created significant impacts on FA biosynthesis. Our research has provided a basis for further studies on FA biosynthesis that is regulated by MJ200 at the molecular level and has helped to clarify the functions of key genes in the FA metabolic pathway in S. tonkinensis seeds.

This study investigated the physiological and biochemical responses of Styrax japonica Sieb. et Zucc. seedlings to normal water and nutrient management (control group, CK), waterlogging (root submerged, T1), and partial submergence (partial stem submergence, T2) over a period of 25 days. Measurements of root activity, malondialdehyde (MDA) content, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) content, antioxidant enzyme (SOD, POD, and CAT), and anaerobic respiratory enzyme (LDH, ADH, and PDC) activities were conducted every 5 days. The results showed the following: the seedlings of the control group maintained high root activity and low oxidative damage levels throughout the experiment; under T1 treatment, root activity initially increased but declined, while MDA and H2O2 content gradually increased; T2 seedlings showed little change initially, but root activity briefly increased at Day 20 before rapidly declining. Regarding the antioxidant system, the control group had the highest SOD activity, while seedlings under T1 and T2 treatments exhibited compensatory upregulation of CAT and POD activities (from Day 15 to 20). Additionally, under waterlogging stress, LDH and ADH activities significantly increased, reflecting the activation of anaerobic metabolic pathways, while PDC content continuously decreased, indicating that low-oxygen stress induced the accumulation of LDH and ADH but reduced ethanol fermentation. PCA revealed that the first two principal components explained 61.53% of the total variation, with PC1 (45.76%) reflecting the contrasting relationship between the activation of anaerobic metabolism (increased ADH and LDH activity) and decreased root activity under waterlogging stress, while PC2 (15.77%) primarily captured the responses of oxidative damage (increased MDA) and corresponding antioxidant defense (upregulated CAT and POD activities). Overall, S. japonica seedlings adapt to short-term waterlogging stress by regulating anaerobic respiration and antioxidant systems, but prolonged stress leads to a continued increase in H2O2 and a decline in antioxidant enzyme activities. This study provides experimental evidence and theoretical support for understanding the waterlogging tolerance mechanisms of S. japonica. This experiment provides important information on the adaptive mechanisms of plants under waterlogging stress.

Styrax Japonica Sieb. et Zucc. has been used as traditional medicine in inflammatory diseases, and isolated compounds have shown pharmacological activities. Pinoresinol glucoside (PIN) belonging to lignins was isolated from the stem bark of S. Japonica. This study aimed to investigate the biological function and mechanisms of PIN on cell migration, osteoblast differentiation, and matrix mineralization. Herein, we investigated the effects of PIN in MC3T3-E1 pre-osteoblasts, which are widely used for studying osteoblast behavior in in vitro cell systems. At concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 100 μM, PIN had no cell toxicity in pre-osteoblasts. Pre-osteoblasts induced osteoblast differentiation, and the treatment of PIN (10 and 30 μM) promoted the cell migration rate in a dose-dependent manner. At concentrations of 10 and 30 μM, PIN elevated early osteoblast differentiation in a dose-dependent manner, as indicated by increases in alkaline phosphatase (ALP) staining and activity. Subsequently, PIN also increased the formation of mineralized nodules in a dose-dependent manner, as indicated by alizarin red S (ARS) staining, demonstrating positive effects of PIN on late osteoblast differentiation. In addition, PIN induced the mRNA level of BMP2, ALP, and osteocalcin (OCN). PIN also upregulated the protein level of BMP2 and increased canonical BMP2 signaling molecules, the phosphorylation of Smad1/5/8, and the protein level of Runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2). Furthermore, PIN activated non-canonical BMP2 signaling molecules, activated MAP kinases, and increased β-catenin signaling. The findings of this study indicate that PIN has biological roles in osteoblast differentiation and matrix mineralization, and suggest that PIN might have anabolic effects in bone diseases such as osteoporosis and periodontitis.

Styrax is the largest genus of the family Styracaceae, with about 130 species distributed across America, Europe, and Southeast Asia. The oleo-resin of these woody shrubs, called Styrax benzoin, has a long tradition of use as incense and in therapeutics, which has stimulated research and industrial applications. Many studies have been carried out on the biological applications of different Styrax species, but some gaps still remain to be filled, particularly regarding the phenology and the biological activity and application in different fields. Hence, this review gathers updated and valuable information on the distribution and phenology of Styrax spp., considering their phytochemicals, biological activity, current and possible applications in medicine, animal feeding, energy production, and the food industry. Overall, Styrax obassia and Styrax japonicus are the most studied, but Styrax officinalis has been thoroughly investigated for its phytochemicals. The recent literature highlights promising applications in oncology and also as an energy crop. The data described in this review could be useful in upgrading the quantity and quality of Styrax benzoin, as well as expanding knowledge on emerging applications, such as bio-pesticides or the development of active packaging for the food industry.

This study described a simple and green approach for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) employing benzoin gum water extract as a reducing and capping agent and their applications. The AgNPs were characterized by ultraviolet–visible spectrophotometer, X-ray diffraction pattern, field emission transmission electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, zeta potential and fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The AgNPs showed promising antimicrobial activity against various pathogens (Gram-negative, Gram-positive and fungus) and possessed high free radical scavenging activity (104.5 ± 7.21 % at 1 mg/ml). In addition, the AgNPs exhibited strong cytotoxicity towards human cervical cancer and human lung cancer cells as compared to the normal mouse macrophage cells. Moreover, the AgNPs possessed anti-biofilm activity against Escherichia coli , and compatibility to human keratinocyte HaCaT cells, which suggests the use of dressing with the AgNPs in chronic wound treatment. Therefore, AgNPs synthesized by benzoin gum extract are comparatively green and may have broad spectrum potential application in biomedicine.

Styrax cambodianus, a new species of Styrax L. ser. Cyrta (Lour.) P.W. Fritsch from Virachay National Park in northeastern Cambodia, is described and illustrated. It is similar to S. hookeri C.B. Clarke but differs by its two most proximal leaves alternate, abaxial surfaces with mostly planar or occasionally slightly raised quaternary veins, rotate corollas, and stamen filaments strongly flexuous in the upper half. Styrax cambodianus is known only from the type and is the only species of the series unequivocally documented from Cambodia. The discovery of this species brings the number of Styrax ser. Cyrta to 31. Styrax cambodianus 􀈾្របេភទ􀉵្មមី ួយៃន Styrax L. ser. Cyrta. (Lour.) េ􀊷ក P.W. Fritsch 􀊌នយកព􀋰ី ទ􀊪􀈾តិវរ􀌡ជយ័ េ􀊈􀊟គ􀋭􀋏ន្របេទសកម􀊙 ៉􀈾។ 􀊼្រត􀌰វ􀊌នសិក􀋐ពណ៏􀊇និងគំនូសប􀈯្ហ ញ។ 􀊼􀊤ន􀊟ព្រប􀋘ក់្របែហល􀈡្ន េ􀉾នឹង Styrax hookeri C.B. Clarke ប៉ុែន្ត􀊼􀊤ន លក្ខ ណៈពីរែបបខុស􀈡្ន េ􀉖យ ស្ល ឹកជិត 􀈹្ល ស់ឋិតេ􀊈ែ􀊒្នក􀈜ងេ្រកាម េហើយ􀊟គេ្រចើន􀊲បេស្ម ើ ជួនកាល􀊤ន􀊲ងបះេ􀋚ើងេលើបន្ត ិច្របែហល􀈾មួយ􀊟គបួនៃន្រទនុងស្ល ឹក កញ􀈳 ៉ំ្រស􀉽ប់􀊕្ក (􀊤ន្រស􀉽ប់􀈾ប់􀈡្ន 􀈾បំពង់ខ្លី េហើយ􀊤ន􀋚􀌰 ប 􀊷ត្រត􀉖ងដូចកាំរេទះ) និងេកសរេ􀉃្ម ល􀊤ន􀊲ង􀈾សរៃសរតូច􀈹្ម រ បត់ែបន􀈜្ល ំង េ􀊈ែ􀊒្នក􀊚ក់ក􀉮្ត ល􀈜ងេលើ។ Styrax cambodianus ្រត􀌰វ􀊌នេគទទូល􀋏្គ ល់ ែតមួយគត់ព ី Type(សំ􀉮កគរំ េូ ដមើ)នងិ 􀊼􀈾្របេភទែតមួយគត់ៃនភស􀉲 ៉􀉳ង􀊩៉ ង􀈾ក់􀊷កម់ កព្រី បេទសកម􀊙 ៉􀈾។ ការរកេឃើញៃន្របេភទេនះ􀊌ន􀊇ំមកនូវចំនួនមួយរបស់ Styrax L. ser. Cyrta ទី31។

As global climate change worsens, trees will have difficulties adapting to abiotic pressures, particularly in the field, where environmental characteristics are difficult to control. A prospective commercial and ornamental tree species, Styrax tonkinensis, has its seed oil output and quality reduced as a result, which lowers the economic benefits. This necessitates growers to implement efficient strategies to increase the seeds of woody biofuel species’ tolerance to abiotic stress. Numerous studies have shown that ZnO nanoparticles (NPs), a new material, and BRs assist plants to increase their resilience to abiotic stress and subsequently adapt to it. However, there have not been many investigations into S. tonkinensis seed resistance. In this study, we examined the changes in antioxidant enzyme activities and transcriptomic results of S. tonkinensis seeds throughout the seed development period to investigate the effects of 24-epibrassinolide (EBL), one of the BRs, and ZnO NPs treatments alone or together on the stress resistance of S. tonkinensis seeds. On 70, 100, and 130 days after flowering (DAF), spraying EBL or ZnO NPs increased the activity of antioxidant enzymes (POD, SOD, and CAT) in S. tonkinensis seeds. Moreover, when the EBL and ZnO NPs were sprayed together, the activities of antioxidant enzymes were the strongest, which suggests that the positive effects of the two can be superimposed. On 70 and 100 DAF, the EBL and ZnO NPs treatments improved seed stress resistance, mostly through complex plant hormone crosstalk signaling, which includes IAA, JA, BR, and ABA signaling. Additionally, ABA played an essential role in hormone crosstalk, while, on 130 DAF, due to the physiological characteristics of seeds themselves in the late stage of maturity, the improvement in seed stress resistance by EBL and ZnO NPs was related to protein synthesis, especially late embryogenesis-abundant protein (LEA), and other nutrient storage in seeds. Spraying EBL and ZnO NPs during the seed growth of S. tonkinensis could significantly increase seed stress resistance. Our findings provide fresh perspectives on how cultural practices can increase abiotic stress tolerance in woody seedlings.