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Developing new biodegradable polymers does not address the issue of the existing polystyrene accumulation in landfills. In 2016, global production of PS was found to be 14.7 million metric tonnes (Goff et al. in J Biotechnol 132:283–286, 2007). An annual growth rate of 4% is expected between 2021 and 2026. This can be in the form of general purpose polystyrene (GPPS), high impact polystyrene (HIPS), and expanded polystyrene (EPS). The increase in the production of PS is expected due to increasing demands in the packaging sector in both the food and non-food sectors (Mordor Intelligence 2018–2028). This disposed polystyrene must be converted to other forms of polymer or chemicals to promote sustainability as well as for reducing the amount of land, air, and water pollution required for disposal. Creating feasible solutions to this is necessary to promote this process on a global scale. To completely understand the accumulation of polystyrene, a comprehensive review is being presented that considers previous data and recent data for better visualisation of the cause. This review covers experiments and methods that have been established. The origins and former advantages of polystyrene will be highlighted to provide a standard for upcoming technologies to maintain. Their disadvantages will be expressed to elaborate the need for cleaner technology. Different methods employed to tackle the accumulation of polystyrene and their outcomes will be discussed. Feasibility analysis and process comparisons will be drawn and highlighted. As compared to a single microbe acting on polystyrene, it was found that using a consortium of microbes proves to be more efficient in the action of polystyrene degradation. To maximise the scale-up opportunities of each degradation mechanism, the metabolic and cellular pathways must be known, so that optimum temperatures must be maintained to allow this consortium of degradative microbes to work efficiently. Through genetic engineering, regulating the expression of genes is possible which allows us to manipulate the action of a microbe on its polymeric substrate.

This paper presents an experimental investigation of six different types of composite sandwich panels manufactured from waste-based materials, which are comprised of two different types of skins (made from hemp and recycled PET (Polyethylene terephthalate) fabrics with bio-epoxy resin) and three different cores (composite wood, recycled plastic, and styrofoam) materials. The skins of these sandwich panels were investigated under five different environmental conditions (normal air, water, hygrothermal, saline solution, and 80 °C elevated temperature) over seven months to evaluate their durability performance. In addition, the tensile and dynamic mechanical properties of those sandwich panels were studied. The bending behavior of cores and sandwich panels was also investigated and compared. The results indicated that elevated temperatures are 30% more detrimental to fiber composite laminates than normal water. Composite laminates made of hemp are more sensitive to environmental conditions than composite laminates made of recycled PET. A higher-density core makes panels more rigid and less susceptible to indentation failure. The flexible plastic cores are found to be up to 25% more effective at increasing the strength of sandwich panels than brittle wood cores.

This paper investigated the upcycling process of thermoplastic waste polystyrene (WPS) into thermosetting particleboard adhesive using two cross-linkers, namely methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) and maleic anhydride (MA). The WPS was dissolved in an organic co-solvent. The weight ratio of WPS/co-solvent was 1:9, and 10% of cross-linkers based on the WPS solids content were added subsequently at 60 °C under continuous stirring for 30 min. The adhesive properties, cohesion strength, and thermo-mechanical properties of WPS-based adhesives were examined to investigate the change of thermoplastic WPS to thermosetting adhesives. The bonding strength of WPS-based adhesives was evaluated in particleboard made of sengon (Falcataria moluccana (Miq.) Barneby & J.W. Grimes) wood and rice straw particles at different weight ratios according to the Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS) A 5908:2003. Rheology and Dynamic Mechanical Analysis revealed that modification with MDI and MA resulted in thermosetting properties in WPS-based adhesives by increasing the viscosity at a temperature above 72.7 °C and reaching the maximum storage modulus above 90.8 °C. WPS modified with MDI had a lower activation energy (Ea) value (83.4 kJ/mole) compared to the WPS modified with MA (150.8 kJ/mole), indicating the cross-linking with MDI was much faster compared with MA. Particleboard fabricated from 100% sengon wood particles bonded with WPS modified with MDI fulfilled the minimum requirement of JIS A 5908:2003 for interior applications.

Plastic pollution is considered an important environmental problem by the United Nations Environment Programme, and it is identified, alongside climate change, as an emerging issue that might affect biological diversity and human health. However, despite research efforts investigating plastics in oceans, relatively little studies have focused on freshwater systems. The aim of this study was to estimate the spatial distribution, types, and characteristics of macro-, meso-, and microplastic fragments in shoreline sediments of a freshwater lake. Food wrappers (mainly polypropylene and polystyrene), bags (high- and low-density polyethylene), bottles (polyethylene terephthalate), and disposable Styrofoam food containers (expanded polystyrene) were the dominant macroplastics recorded in this study. Contrary to other studies, herein macroplastic item surveys would not serve as surrogates for microplastic items. This is disadvantageous since macroplastic surveys are relatively easier to conduct. Otherwise, an average of 25 mesoplastics (mainly expanded polystyrene) and 704 microplastic particles (diverse resins) were recorded per square meter in sandy sediments. Comparisons with other studies from freshwater and marine beaches indicated similar relevance of plastic contamination, demonstrating for the first time that plastic pollution is a serious problem in the Paraná floodplain lakes. This study is also valuable from a social/educational point of view, since plastic waste has been ignored in the Paraná catchment as a pollutant problem, and therefore, the outcome of the current study is a relevant contribution for decision makers.

Large quantities of mismanaged plastic waste are polluting and threatening the health of the blue planet. As such, vast amounts of this plastic waste found in the oceans originates from land. It finds its way to the open ocean through rivers, waterways and estuarine systems. Here we present a novel machine learning algorithm based on convolutional neural networks (CNNs) that is capable of detecting and quantifying floating and washed ashore plastic litter. The aquatic plastic litter detection, classification and quantification system (APLASTIC-Q) was developed and trained using very high geo-spatial resolution imagery (∼5 pixels cm−1 = 0.002 m pixel−1) captured from aerial surveys in Cambodia. APLASTIC-Q was made up of two machine learning components (i) plastic litter detector (PLD-CNN) and (ii) plastic litter quantifier (PLQ-CNN). PLD-CNN managed to categorize targets as water, sand, vegetation and plastic litter with an 83% accuracy. It also provided a qualitative count of litter as low or high based on a thresholding approach. PLQ-CNN further distinguished and enumerated the litter items in each of the classes defined as water bottles, Styrofoam, canisters, cartons, bowls, shoes, polystyrene packaging, cups, textile, carry bags small or large. The types and amounts of plastic litter provide benchmark information that is urgently needed for decision-making by policymakers, citizens and other public and private stakeholders. Quasi-quantification was based on automated counts of items present in the imagery with caveats of underlying object in case of aggregated litter. Our scientific evidence-based machine learning algorithm has the prospects of complementing net trawl surveys, field campaigns and clean-up activities for improved quantification of plastic litter. APLASTIC-Q is a smart algorithm that is easy to adapt for fast and automated detection as well as quantification of floating or washed ashore plastic litter from aerial, high-altitude pseudo satellites and space missions.

This study aims to determine the optimal percentage of Styrofoam and Coconut Shell Ash (CSA) in the Asphalt Concrete-Wearing Course (AC-WC) mixture to mitigate the impact of diesel fuel spills on asphalt quality, addressing the degradation of asphalt due to accidental diesel fuel spills that compromise road durability. The research employed Marshall parameter testing following Bina Marga 2018 General Specifications, Revision 1 of 2019 (Division 6). Five asphalt content variations were used (4.5%, 5%, 5.5%, 6%, and 6.5%), with two substitution levels for Styrofoam (6% and 8%) and two for CSA (50% and 100%). The impact of diesel fuel immersion was simulated with immersion times of 5 and 9 minutes. The optimal asphalt content (OAC) was found to be 5.5%, producing favorable characteristics with a stability value of 3,868.26 kg, while the combination of 8% Styrofoam and 50% CSA filler yielded the best performance with a stability value of 4,817.28 kg. Immersion testing of this mixture with diesel fuel for 5 minutes (4,212.64 kg) and 9 minutes (3,874.08 kg) also produced stability values well above the required threshold of > 1,000 kg. The results demonstrate that using 8% Styrofoam and 50% CSA filler can significantly improve the mixture’s resistance to degradation from diesel spills. This study provides significant insights into the potential of using polymer waste materials to enhance the durability of asphalt roads, promoting the reuse of waste and improving road infrastructure resilience.

The province of Camarines Norte has been producing Kappaphycus seaweed since the 1970s, becoming the leading producer in the Bicol Region. However, the occurrence and habit of shore crabs within seaweed farms have not yet been previously recorded. Assessment of shore crabs in seven seaweed farms was conducted for one year. Snorkeling surveys were conducted to record the occurrence and observe the habits of shore crabs on seaweed floaters. Additionally, field interviews with 110 seaweed farmers were carried out to obtain data on floater utilization, farm size, and planting season. Results showed a total of 1,019 shore crabs among 2,081 styrofoam floaters recorded, resulting in a 49.0% occurrence rate and a density of 42.52 crabs per hectare. The majority (84.2%) of shore crabs occurred during the planting season (February to July). Findings revealed that shore crabs exhibit solitary rafting behavior on styrofoam floaters, maintaining a consistent 1:1 ratio (crab to float). Shore crabs actively dismantle styrofoam floaters, emerging as the primary cause of rapid loss and fragmentation. In contrast to other types of floaters used by seaweed farmers, styrofoam floaters appeared to be attractive to shore crabs for rafting, posing a potential risk of ingestion. Regulating the use of styrofoam floaters in the area is recommended to prevent microplastic contamination, promoting responsible aquaculture and fisheries management. Additionally, flat-surfaced floats that are sturdy and more eco-friendly can be used as alternative floaters and as a basis for redesigning floaters to support the crab's rafting population.

The motivation of this study was to investigate the feasibility of production of green and sustainable bitumen modified with waste styrofoam (WS) that contributed to the base bitumen in certain rate. To achieve it, not only basic but also rheological properties and storage stability of WS-modified bitumen were taken into consideration. In this respect, bitumen with 70/100 penetration grade was modified with WS in different rates ranging from 1 to 5% with 1% increment. Basic test methods including penetration, softening point, rotational viscometer were conducted on the bitumen samples to analyze physical properties, while dynamic shear rheometer and bending beam rheometer tests were performed on the samples for rheological assessment. Rolling thin film oven and pressure aging vessel tests, which are aging methods in rheological evaluation, were followed to supply short- and long-term aged samples, respectively. Storage stability test was conducted on the modified samples to determine the compatibility between the two materials at different contribution WS rates. The results showed that significant changes occur on both physical and rheological properties of WS-modified bitumen. Compatibility between WS and bitumen was not observed except of the bitumen modified up to 2% WS as examined with softening point, but up to 3% WS as examined with penetration test. Overall, disposal of WS within bitumen modification can be a green and sustainable as considering the ecological and economic aspects.

Synthetic dye contamination poses a significant threat to water resources, necessitating the development of efficient removal technologies. This study introduces a novel organic-inorganic modified geopolymer for effective Crystal violet (CV) dye extraction from aqueous solutions. Additionally, it addresses waste management challenges by incorporating industrial (Slag, Styrofoam) and agricultural (Moringa leaves ash) waste into geopolymer cement. Slag-based geopolymer composites were synthesized with varying concentrations (1, 3, and 6 wt%) of Styrofoam (SSF1, SSF3, SSF6) and moringa leaves ash (SMA1, SMA3, SMA6). The mechanical properties of these composites were assessed over a curing period of up to 180 days in 100% humidity. While the control geopolymer sample (S) demonstrated superior compressive strength of 58.9 MPa after 180 days of curing, the modified geopolymer composites exhibited notable mechanical stability, with SSF1 and SMA1 achieving strengths of 52.8 MPa and 47.5 MPa, respectively. Furthermore, the adsorption performance of the modified geopolymer composites toward CV was evaluated as an additional environmental application. Notably, all modified geopolymers surpassed the control in CV removal, with SSF6 exhibiting an outstanding adsorption capacity of 434.78 mg/g. These findings demonstrate the potential of modified geopolymer composites as a promising, sustainable, and high-performance material for wastewater treatment applications.

This context is about enhancing the freshwater production of a single slope solar desalination still (SSSDS) using water film cooling over the glass cover and using hybrid natural fibre composite (HNFC) insulation. In contrast to the conventional insulations, we proposed the HNFC insulation; this composite was made of natural fibre Pharsalus vulgaris (6 %) and nano-silica (1 %) with unsaturated polyester resin. In this study, conventional SSSDS and proposed SSSDS with enhanced evaporation and condensation have been designed. The same was built with native materials. A conventional and proposed type SSSDS was subjected to the same experimental condition. The experimental result showed that using water film cooling over glass cover and HNFC insulation at 0.5 cm depth caused a 35% increase in the amount of distilled water when compared with the conventional type SSSDS with polystyrene—Styrofoam (thermocol) insulation. Water film cooling over glass cover and HNFC insulation at 1 cm depth caused a 21% increase in the amount of distilled water when compared with the conventional type SSSDS with thermocol insulation. The conventional type solar desalination still with thermocol insulation at 0.5 and 1 cm depth yields are 1.665 and 1.171 l/m 2 /day, respectively, and the proposed solar desalination still with water film cooling over glass cover and HNFC insulation at 0.5 and 1 cm depth yields are 2.253 and 1.420 l/m 2 /day, respectively.