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Purpose This study assesses how urban soil transformation affects pollution levels and ecological risks in Cracow, Lublin, and Torun using specific geochemical indices. Methods The surveyed cities, namely Cracow, Lublin and Torun, are among the oldest in Poland, with origins dating back to the Middle Ages. Moreover, they did not experience significant destruction during World War II. A total of 135 sampling points were selected from three cities, and topsoil samples (0–20 cm) were collected from various areas, including industrial, residential, recreational areas, wastelands, traffic routes, allotments, cultivated fields, forests and cemeteries (45 topsoil samples in each city). The concentration of 8 elements (As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb, Sb, Zn) was measured to determine pollution and ecological risk indicators, such as geoaccumulation index ( I geo ), pollution load index ( PLI ), cancer risk ( CR ), and ecological risk assessment ( ERi ). Results Findings reveal significant differences among the cities, with Cracow showing the highest pollution and ecological risk levels, influenced primarily by industrial activities. I geo above 3 was found for Sb (4% of the sample population), Cr (33%), Ni (31%), Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn (11%). In the other two cities, high I geo values occurred sporadically with most values ranging from 0 to 2. The concentrations of Cd, Pb, Sb, Cr and Ni were found to be highest in industrial areas, transportation areas and urban wastelands, and the lowest in the study plots located in forests. In Cracow, almost 58% of the surveyed areas are polluted. Almost the entire area of Torun (87%) shows high values of summed ecological risk assessment ( PER k ). Lublin is characterized by the lowest ecological risk, almost 32% of the surveyed areas are polluted ( PER k —high and very high). Conclusions The application of pollution and ecological risk indicators allowed for the identification of elevated heavy metal and metalloid concentrations in the studied soils and evaluation of disease risk in people. The data were strongly correlated with the level of anthropogenic pressure, which varied depending on the different land use.

Purpose The study of microplastics (MPs) in soils is one of the most important contemporary challenges as they negatively influence soil properties and may adsorb heavy metals and pesticides. Recent data show that they can be transported in the terrestrial food chain, endangering human and animal health. In this pilot study, the qualitative–quantitative analysis of microplastics in soils of allotment gardens, which are mainly used for fruit and vegetable production, was done. Also, sources and environmental risks related to microplastics are discussed. Methods We applied a four-step approach based on standard soil characteristics, density separation of MPs from the soil matrix, stereoscopic microscopy, and Fourier infrared spectrometry (FTIR). Results In all studied topsoils, high abundance and heterogeneity of microplastics were found. Microplastics like polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyurethane (PUR), phenolic resins (PF), and alkyd resins (AR) were identified. Their sources are not only related to human activities on the allotments, but also deposition with wind or water cannot be excluded. Conclusions We revealed that soil contamination of microplastics in allotment gardens can be a significant environmental problem that has been overlooked in research. Considering the high amount of people who use allotment gardens and the potential environmental risk, soil contamination by microplastics should be monitored.

Purpose This study deals with the possibility of adding some of the removed and appropriately crushed bituminous conglomerate (here called simply asphalt), as well as compost from municipal solid waste recycling, to urban depaved soils to be used as green areas, to reduce disposal costs. Methods For this purpose, we conducted a 5-month long pot experiment testing five treatments with different proportions of asphalt (30% v/v, 20% v/v, and 10% v/v), compost (20% v/v and 10% v/v), and excavated urban soil making up the remainder. A mix of grasses commonly used in urban green infrastructures was sown and monitored over time in terms of growth rate and morphological traits. Additionally, the possible release of heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was evaluated by analysing both the constructed soils and the leachates, to ascertain if the rules requiring asphalt to be landfilled rather than reused (at least partially) in green infrastructure are reasonable. Results Asphalt did not have any apparent negative impact on grass growth. The release of heavy metals and PAHs was minor and anyway below the national legal standards. All substrates with asphalt showed similar or even better physico-chemical and biochemical features than the excavated soil alone, while compost addition enhanced all the grass morphometric traits investigated. Conclusions This study suggests that, in areas desealed for urban re-greening, utilizing a portion of the removed asphalt in place, once appropriately crushed, together with soil and compost could be a feasible and safe approach.

Purpose This study aimed to evaluate the effect of application of soil material from topsoil and different doses of marble sludge (MBS) and sheep manure (SM) on physicochemical and biological properties of acidic Kettara mine tailings. Methods Two main mixtures were prepared: M1—70:30 ratio of mine tailings (MT) to soil material from topsoil (TS) with 10% MBS; M2—60:40 ratio of MT to TS with 6% MBS. Both mixtures received SM treatment at doses ranging from 4 to 12%. Results The application of TS and MBS significantly increased the pH of MT (from 2.11 to 7.54), while reducing the EC (from 7.86 mS cm −1 to 2.74 mS cm −1 ). The addition of the organic amendment increased the organic carbon, total nitrogen and P availability in all treatments. Data also indicated that organo-mineral amendments efficiently reduced CaCl 2 - exchangeable Pb, Cu (1.7–two fold), and Zn (33 fold) if compared to the untreated MT. The improvement of physicochemical properties of MT resulted in an increase in soil microbial abundance and in the activity of urease, dehydrogenase, and alkaline phosphatase. Moreover, the addition of 10 and 12% of SM to M1 and M2 significantly increased seedlings’ root length (2- 2.5 fold) compared to the treatments without SM. A remarkable increase was observed in Peganum harmala L. root length (60–73%) if compared to Lollium perenne. Conclusions Overall, the treatment containing M2 and 10% of sheep manure was the most effective treatment suggesting its efficient use for the restoration of contaminated mining sites.

Purpose Since the occurrence of humans, soil has been affected by them. Thus, rural areas have been modified. Currently, urban areas are increasing extensively. They are locations with a high population density that are impacted by settlements and industrial technologies. This paper shows how soils are further discriminated by urbanization. Material and methods A collection of observations and conclusions about the characteristics of natural and urban soils and the discrimination by interpretation of the particularities of discovered soils are presented. This view is enlarged by the specific features of the mode of human action and their effects on soil formation. Results and discussion The effects of humans on soils in rural areas are numerous. They concern effects from soil use, evolving soil fertility and raw material supply by mining. Changes in soil formation occur due to natural factors in the landscapes. Discussions about the nature of soils in urban areas stress the situation of a low soil age, that they become relicts, are highly disturbed, contain artifacts, and are mostly byproducts of human decisions. Based on the specific urban climate, there are zonal soils. Perceptions about what qualifies these soils to be separately designated as urban soils are presented. The new view of the differentiation of artifacts by their origin from heat-treated products allows a more precise definition of soils in urban areas. Soil formation can occur quickly. Conclusion Urban soil research is a wide field for discovering new modes of soil formation and the relationship between humans and soils.

Purpose The objectives of this study aim to comprehensively map and analyze soil lead (Pb) contamination, understand its health and socioeconomic impacts, and track its temporal evolution in Lafayette, LA, thereby equipping the community with critical data to mitigate exposure and inform future urban planning and public health policies. Methods A total of 1,290 composite topsoil samples were collected from public areas (high traffic roadways, industrial zones, and parks) and residential regions (near foundations, street sides, open spaces, and gardens) across 24 census tracts in Lafayette, LA. Using X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) for quantification and geographic information system (GIS) - based Kriging interpolation for spatial analysis, the study integrated BLL data from the Louisiana Department of Health and demographic data from the U.S. Census Bureau to assess the relationship between Pb exposure and socioeconomic disparities. Results The median soil Pb concentration was 27 mg/kg, which is below the median geochemical background of 33 mg/kg (3–52 mg/kg) measured in sediment samples from a small Louisiana drainage basin. The historic city center exhibited the highest soil Pb concentrations. Higher poverty levels and older housing are significant predictors of increased soil Pb contamination, with notable disparities showing higher soil Pb levels in Black-majority areas compared to White-majority areas, highlighting a potential environmental justice issue. Only four census tracts had children with BLLs between 5–10 μg/dL and none > 10 μg/dL, based on data from 2013–2017. Conclusion The findings underscore the disproportionate impact of soil Pb contamination on minority and socioeconomically disadvantaged communities within urban environments. This study highlights the need for targeted policy interventions and community engagement to address the identified disparities in Pb exposure and its associated health risks. The results indicate the need for enhanced urban soil management and remediation efforts, particularly in older, lower-income neighborhoods with a significant minority presence. Graphical abstract

Purpose This study aimed to assess the feasibility of the ecoenzymatic stoichiometry and isotope signature approaches as indicators of urban soil functionality, related to carbon and nutrient cycles. Methods In Pisa and Livorno (Italy), study sites with three degrees of urbanization (natural, peri-urban and central urban sites) were selected, where holm oak ( Quercus ilex L.) was the most common evergreen species. The urban and peri-urban sites differed in terms of NO 2 emissions. At each site, topsoil and plant litter were sampled, pH, EC, TOC, and TN were measured in soil and δ 13 C and δ 15 N in soil and plant litter. The β-glucosidase, acid phosphatase and N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase enzyme activities were also determined in soil and the ratios were calculated. Results The δ 15 N in plant litter increased from peri-urban to urban sites, along with the NO 2 emissions, emerging as a sensitive indicator of atmospheric N deposition. The δ 15 N and δ 13 C increased in soil, indicating more rapid N cycles and organic matter degradation in peri-urban and urban areas than in natural areas. The ecoenzymatic stoichiometry revealed C and P microbial limitations for all the sites studied. However, the microbial needs of C and P increased and decreased, respectively, along the urbanization gradient. Isotope abundance and microbial nutrient limitations were found to correlate with soil properties. Specifically, soil δ 15 N was closely correlated with microbial C limitations. Conclusion The isotope signature and enzymatic stoichiometry used as indicators revealed that the soil characteristics affected the soil carbon and nutrient cycles as well as microbial energy and nutrient needs.

Purpose Poor physical conditions are a typical feature of urban soils that reduce their functionality regarding plant production or the water cycle. However, the increasing importance of urbanization makes it necessary to carry out additional research on physical properties of urban soils. Methods In this work, we have studied 64 urban soils in Santiago de Compostela (Spain), over different parent materials and under several land uses. We assessed their physical properties in the field and laboratory, with measures of bulk density and porosity, water holding capacity, aggregate stability and water-dispersible clay, permeability and resistance to penetration. The erosion risk was assessed by estimation of the k factor in the RUSLE. Results The results show that the soils present heterogeneous physical properties, as common in urban soils. As a result of high organic matter and Fe contents, the soils present low bulk densities and high aggregate stability. Compaction issues are widespread but dependent on land use: in general soils under urban agriculture use present higher permeability and lower compaction levels than urban grasslands and forests. High infiltration values observed despite compaction are likely due to the abundance of coarse fragments and preferential flow. Conclusion Overall, urban soils have potentially low erosion risk as shown by the K factor values, but sound management is essential to keep actual erosion rates down, because relief, climatic factors as well as human behavior are susceptible of increasing erosion risk at some points.

Purpose Anthropogenic influence leads to significant changes in soil properties and functions. Soil contamination by potentially toxic metals is one of the major environmental problems in urban environments. Traditional soil monitoring methods, while accurate, are often costly and labor-intensive, making it challenging to capture the intricate spatial variations of pollutants in urban soils. Proximal sensing based on X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis is considered a cost-effective approach for rapid assessment of soil contamination. The assessment accuracy depends on soil properties (e.g., texture, moisture, organic matter content) and detection limits for different elements. The research aimed to test a portable XRF analyzer for the assessment of soil contamination by potentially toxic metals in green zones of Moscow megalopolis. Materials and methods Initially, Olympus Vanta C pXRF was calibrated using artificially contaminated soil mixtures by Ni, Cu, Pb, Zn, and Cd, representing a diversity of urban soils in Moscow. Linear regression was used to compare pXRF results with the ICP-OES method, and regression coefficients were used to set correction factors ( k ) for observed potentially toxic metals based on soil properties. Subsequently, the spatial mapping accuracy of topsoil contamination in three distinct green areas was assessed using pXRF (with and without correction factors) based on ICP-OES reference concentrations. Results The calibrated pXRF showed high accuracy for Pb ( R 2  = 0.94, b  = 0.91, p  < 0.05), Cu ( R 2  = 0.95, b  = 0.95, p  < 0.05), and Zn ( R 2  = 0.95, b  = 1.04, p  < 0.05), moderate accuracy for Ni ( R 2  = 0.68, b  = 0.77, p  < 0.05), and limited accuracy for Cd ( p  > 0.05) on a typical urban contamination level due to its high detection limit. Spatial variability in soil contamination was determined by comparison to the health thresholds (approximate permissible concentration and pollution indices), and the areas subjected to land-use restrictions were identified based on the regional environmental regulations. When calibrated by correction factors, mapping accuracy based on pXRF approached that of ICP-OES (in the range of 10%) for Ni, Cu, and Pb in major parts of the areas. Conclusion The study revealed that uncorrected pXRF measurements overestimated contamination. When tailored to specific urban soil conditions, pXRF offers a viable, cost-efficient alternative for assessing soil contamination. The developed approach improved the accuracy and reliability of local soil contamination maps by capturing spatial patterns ignored by conventional methods which is essential to optimize costs of soil rehabilitation and sustainable management of urban soils.

Purpose The aim was to show the extent to which urban soils differ from rural ones. The main focus was the effect of lawn use compared to meadow on soil properties. Material and methods Study sites were a public bath lawn, near a children’s pool and football goal, differently frequented public park areas, and meadows inclusive of Colluvium. Undisturbed soils were sampled. The pH, bulk density, and soil organic carbon (SOC) and nitrogen (N) content were determined, the SOC density and SOC and N stocks, and C/N ratio were calculated. Results and discussion The pH of urban soils was variable and increased with depth. The meadow soil had very low pH values. The bulk density of urban soils showed the low compaction effect of older soil deposition techniques. Differences in soil bulk density occurred due to site use intensity. The top soil of the meadows had a very low bulk density due to its high soil organic matter content. In the subsoil it increased to low to moderate values. The SOC content and density differed between the types of lawn use and were not uniform. The meadow soils were more uniform. The N content varied not only on lawn sites but also in part between meadows. Conclusion Soil properties between urban lawn and rural meadow soils and within the groups of these soils differ due to the mode of deposition of soil substrates and the age of soils. Similar effects on soil properties exist, depending on soil use.