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Innovative designs for turbines can be achieved by advances in nickel-based superalloys and manufacturing methods, including the adoption of additive manufacturing. In this regard, selective electron beam melting (SEBM) and selective laser melting (SLM) of nickel-based superalloys do provide distinct advantages. Furthermore, the direct energy deposition (DED) processes can be used for repair and reclamation of nickel alloy components. The current paper explores opportunities for innovation and qualification challenges with respect to deployment of AM as a disruptive manufacturing technology. In the first part of the paper, fundamental correlations of processing parameters to defect tendency and microstructure evolution will be explored using DED process. In the second part of the paper, opportunities for innovation in terms of site-specific control of microstructure during processing will be discussed. In the third part of the paper, challenges in qualification of AM parts for service will be discussed and potential methods to alleviate these issues through in situ process monitoring, and big data analytics are proposed.

Currently, additive manufacturing (AM) experiences significant attention in nearly all industrial sectors. AM is already well established in fields such as medicine or spare part production. Nevertheless, processing of high-performance nickel-based superalloys and especially single crystalline alloys such as CMSX-4® is challenging due to the difficulty of intense crack formation. Selective electron beam melting (SEBM) takes place at high process temperatures (~ 1000 °C) and under vacuum conditions. Current work has demonstrated processing of CMSX-4® without crack formation. In addition, by using appropriate AM scan strategies, even single crystals (SX SEBM CMSX-4®) develop directly from the powder bed. In this contribution, we investigate the mechanical properties of SX SEBM CMSX-4® prepared by SEBM in the as-built condition and after heat treatment. The focus is on hardness, strength, low cycle fatigue, and creep properties. These properties are compared with conventional cast and heat-treated material.

Correlative high-resolution transmission electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy are used to study deformation-induced planar faults in the single-crystal superalloy MD2 crept at 800 °C and 650 MPa. Segregation of Cr and Co at microtwins, anti-phase boundaries (APB), and complex/superlattice extrinsic and intrinsic stacking faults (CESF/SESF and CISF/SISF) is confirmed and quantified. The extent of this is found to depend upon the fault type, being most pronounced for the APB. The CESF/SESF is studied in detail due to its role as a precursor of the microtwins causing the majority of plasticity under these conditions. Quantitative modeling is carried out to rationalize the findings; the experimental results are consistent with a greater predicted velocity for the lengthening of the CESF/SESF—compared with the other types of fault—and hence confirm its role in the diffusion-assisted plasticity needed for the microtwinning mechanism to be operative.

Grain boundary serration in the superalloy Inconel 600 was studied. Two microstructural variants, one with nonserrated and the other with serrated grain boundaries were generated by altering the heat-treatment conditions, while keeping other aspects of the microstructure unchanged. The effect on the creep response between 700 °C and 900 °C was measured, and the different failure modes and accumulated damage were quantified using high-angular resolution electron backscatter diffraction analysis in the scanning electron microscope and also by X-ray computed tomography. It is found that serration plays a more crucial role in the high-temperature/low-stress regime when an intergranular cracking mechanism involving cavitation is operative; here it plays a role in improving both creep life and creep ductility. Any effect of serration is less prevalent at low temperatures where transgranular failure is dominant.

Numerous challenges persist with the additive manufacturing of high γ′ containing Ni-based superalloys such as CM247LC. Currently, significant cracking occurs during deposition of CM247LC components using laser powder bed fusion and during post-processing. Whilst post-deposition procedures seek to eliminate or minimise cracks, current procedures do not produce a microstructure suitable for service. This study systematically investigates the microstructural evolution of CM247LC manufactured using laser powder bed fusion following multiple post processing treatments. Phase and textural changes after each processing step were consistent with previous studies, although an additional Hf-rich and Cr-depleted segregation zone was identified along intercellular boundaries in the as-deposited condition, believed to be associated with the cracking propensity. Compositional modification of CM247LC including removal of Hf, reduction of C and addition of Nb eliminated the segregation zone but these changes were associated with an increased susceptibility to solidification and liquation cracking.

A dislocation density-based model for alloy 718 in the annealed state is proposed in order to accurately describe the deformation behavior of this alloy for a wide range of thermo-mechanical loadings. The model accounts for numerous microstructural mechanisms, including strain hardening, grain size effect, dynamic strain aging (DSA), solid solution strengthening, as well as phonon and electron drag which affects dislocation movements at high strain rates. Two types of recovery mechanisms are also included: recovery due to dislocation glide and recovery associated with cross-slip of screw dislocations. The model is calibrated using experimentally determined stress–strain curves for both low and high strain rates in the order of 10–3 to 103 s−1, and for temperatures in the range 20 °C to 800 °C. The stress–strain data computed with the model are in good agreement with the experimental data. The inclusion of DSA is found to be effective in the combination of temperatures and strain rates corresponding to experimental observations. The solid solution strengthening contribution increases with decreasing temperature and increasing strain rate. The drag effect in the model proves to be significant only for deformation at high strain rate (~ 103 s−1).

The cracking behavior of a high γ′ volume fraction CoNi-base superalloy fabricated via laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) is studied in relation to the content of carbon and boron. Severe cracking occurred with the increase in boron content from 0.08 to 0.16 at. pct (0.015 to 0.029 wt pct), while compositions with 0.1 to 0.36 at. pct C (0.02 to 0.076 wt pct) and 0.08 at. pct B exhibited minimal cracking. Assessment of cracks in the high-boron composition shows a variation in crack density with printing parameters, and alignment of the cracks with the build direction. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of the crack surfaces shows evidence of a solidification cracking mode. Differential thermal analysis (DTA) reveals a decreased incipient melting temperature for the high-boron composition, and atom probe tomography (APT) is used to measure the enrichment at grain boundaries, revealing distinct boron segregation. Scheil-Gulliver solidification simulations for the different C and B levels are consistent with the incipient melting behavior observed with DTA. Evaluation of the solidification cracking susceptibility from the simulations allow for comparison of the CoNi alloy behavior to Ni-base superalloys studied for LPBF fabrication and displays how such metrics may aid in the design of new precipitation-strengthened superalloys for additive manufacturing (AM).

In this contribution it will be shown how the metal powder bed fusion technology electron beam melting (EBM) enables a successful crack- and defect-free processing of the non-weldable Ni-based superalloy Alloy 247. Besides a defect-free processing, EBM process capabilities offer unique opportunities to tailor the microstructure according to material requirements for high-temperature applications. It could be demonstrated that EBM material properties are comparable or even better than traditionally casted Alloy 247 material. Tailored polycrystalline and columnar microstructures were achieved by process parameter adoption for solidification control. The EBM as-built microstructure was characterized by conventional metallography techniques and the results were used to define an adopted HIP + heat-treatment cycle which was applied prior to mechanical testing. Thus, corresponding mechanical and microstructural properties in different conditions will be presented and discussed to show EBM material capabilities. As a result, directionally solidified (DS) EBM material can achieve similar creep performance as DS cast material, despite an observed fine-grained “micro-DS” structure in EBM.

Constrained γ/γ′ lattice misfit as a function of temperature (room temperature, 871 °C, 982 °C, 1093 °C, and 1204 °C) is measured by neutron diffraction on the first-generation Ni-based single-crystal superalloy René N4 and second-generation superalloys René N5, CMSX4, and PWA1484. All the alloys studied show negative misfit at temperatures above 871 °C. For René N4, René N5, and PWA1484, the misfit becomes less negative at temperatures above 1093 °C, possibly due to either the chemistry effect or internal stress relaxation. The magnitude of the misfit shows a qualitative agreement with Caron’s misfit model based on Vegard’s coefficients. The Re-free alloy René N4 was found to have a larger γ lattice parameter and γ/γ′ misfit due to higher fractions of Cr, Ti, and Mo. After 100 hours of annealing at high temperatures, René N5 shows a more negative misfit than the misfit after the standard heat treatment.

Superalloys have become integral to advanced engineering sectors due to their exceptional thermal stability, corrosion resistance, and strength retention at high temperatures. These superior properties, however, present significant challenges to conventional machining methods, making electric discharge machining (EDM) a critical non-traditional process for the precise shaping of nickel-, titanium-, and cobalt-based superalloys. This review synthesizes research developments in the EDM of these materials, focusing on their electro-thermal behavior, process parameters, and microstructural responses. A thorough examination of existing literature indicates a predominant focus on nickel-based alloys, especially the Inconel series, while alloys such as René 80, Waspaloy, Udimet 720, and Stellite, L-605 have been less extensively studied. The review explores how EDM process input variables such as discharge energy, pulse timing, dielectric composition, and electrode characteristics collectively affect material subtraction rate, surface morphology, and metallurgical transformations. Innovations in powder-mixed, ultrasonic-assisted, cryogenic, and near-dry-EDM configurations are assessed for their potential to improve machining efficiency, reduce surface degradation, and support sustainable processing. Recent progress in biodegradable dielectrics, energy-efficient control systems, and hybrid EDM architectures suggests a shift towards eco-friendly and digitally enhanced manufacturing. Additionally, the integration of AI-based modeling, digital twins, and data-driven optimization frameworks heralds the emergence of intelligent EDM systems capable of real-time adaptation and predictive control. By consolidating experimental insights, material-specific trends, and emerging technological directions, this review offers a comprehensive understanding of EDM’s current state and its transformative role in the sustainable and intelligent machining of advanced superalloys.