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The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) is often proposed to holistically capture vulnerability in assessments of livelihoods in aid and development programs. The full capacity of the approach has however only rarely been used in these assessments, lacking a clear account of processes of change and flexibility of assets, as well as the ability to quantify all capital assets of a livelihood system. The descriptions of livelihoods so far are in fact non-holistic. This paper attempts to use SLA in its full capacity through a quantification of the different capitals covered; natural, physical, economic, social and human. Further, the relationships between capitals are explored in a Chinese rural context of changing climate and land-use, and examples are given on how investments in one capital in reality can end up being accounted for in other capitals. The results indicate that through an analytical and process-oriented SLA, an effective tool for assessment of vulnerability can be developed. Such a tool would assist development organizations and policy-makers to target poverty traps and escape routes in the face of rapid and multiple changes.

Alternative livelihood project (ALP) is a widely used term for interventions that aim to reduce the prevalence of activities deemed to be environmentally damaging by substituting them with lower impact livelihood activities that provide at least equivalent benefits. ALPs are widely implemented in conservation, but in 2012, an International Union for Conservation of Nature resolution called for a critical review of such projects based on concern that their effectiveness was unproven. We focused on the conceptual design of ALPs by considering their underlying assumptions. We placed ALPs within a broad category of livelihood-focused interventions to better understand their role in conservation and their intended impacts. We dissected 3 flawed assumptions about ALPs based on the notions of substitution, the homogenous community, and impact scalability. Interventions based on flawed assumptions about people's needs, aspirations, and the factors that influence livelihood choice are unlikely to achieve conservation objectives. We therefore recommend use of a sustainable livelihoods approach to understand the role and function of environmentally damaging behaviors within livelihood strategies; differentiate between households in a community that have the greatest environmental impact and those most vulnerable to resource access restrictions to improve intervention targeting; and learn more about the social-ecological system within which household livelihood strategies are embedded. Rather than using livelihood-focused interventions as a direct behavior-change tool, it may be more appropriate to focus on either enhancing the existing livelihood strategies of those most vulnerable to conservation-imposed resource access restrictions or on use of livelihood-focused interventions that establish a clear link to conservation as a means of building good community relations. However, we recommend that the term ALP be replaced by the broader term livelihood-focused intervention. This avoids the implicit assumption that alternatives can fully substitute for natural resource-based livelihood activities. El término proyecto de subsistencia alternativa es utilizado ampliamente para las intervenciones que buscan reducir la prevalencia de las actividades señaladas como dañinas para el ambiente al sustituirlas con actividades de subsistencia de menor impacto que proporcionan por lo menos beneficios equivalente. Estos proyectos se implementan comúnmente en la conservación, pero en 2012, una resolución de la Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza pidió una revisión crítica de dichos proyectos con base en la preocupación por la falta de pruebas de su efectividad. Nos enfocamos en el diseño conceptual de proyectos alternativos de subsistencia al considerar sus conjeturas subyacentes. Colocamos los proyectos alternativos de subsistencia dentro de una categoría amplia de intervenciones enfocadas en la subsistencia para entender de mejor manera su papel en la conservación y sus impactos intencionales. Analizamos minuciosamente tres suposiciones erróneas sobre los proyectos de subsistencia alternativa con base en las ideas de sustitución, comunidad bomogénea y escalabilidad del impacto. Las intervenciones basadas en las suposiciones erróneas de las necesidades de las personas, aspiraciones y los factores que influyen en la elección de la subsistencia tienen poca probabilidad de alcanzar objetivos de conservación. Por lo tanto, recomendamos el uso de una estrategia de subsistencias sustentables para entender el papel y la función de los comportamientos dañinos para el ambiente dentro de las estrategias de subsistencia; diferenciar entre los hogares de una comunidad que tienen el mayor impacto ambiental y aquellos más vulnerables a las restricciones de acceso a los recursos para mejorar la selección de intervenciones; y aprender más sobre el sistema socio-ecológico en el cual están embebidas las estrategias de subsistencia de los hogares. En lugar de usar las intervenciones enfocadas en la subsistencia como una herramienta directa de cambio de comportamiento, puede ser más apropiado enfocarse en mejorar las estrategias existentes de aquellos más vulnerables a las restricciones de acceso a los recursos impuestas por la conservación o en el uso de las intervenciones enfocadas en la subsistencia que establecen un vínculo claro con la conservación como medio de construcción de buenas relaciones comunitarias. Sin embargo, recomendamos que el término proyecto de subsistencia alternativa sea remplazado por el término más general de intervención enfocada en la subsistencia. Esto evita la suposición implícita de que las alternativas pueden sustituir por completo a las actividades de subsistencia basadas en los recursos naturales.

This paper aims to identify effective mechanisms for government poverty alleviation measures based on the livelihood sustainability of farm households in Southern Shaanxi province, China. The paper utilizes data from 414 farm households, collected through field observations and in-depth interviews in 24 rural communes in Qinba Mountain Area of Shaanxi province, China. Using theoretical research methods and employing the sustainable livelihood approach (SLA) framework, this paper analyzes poverty alleviation measures as well as the impact of varied capital availability on sustainable livelihood. The study shows that developing local industries and governmental financial support improve the sustainable livelihood of farmers and eradicate absolute poverty. The findings of this study further indicate that there is a positive correlation between poverty alleviation measures and natural and social capital for sustainable livelihood. The paper provides empirical and quantitative evidence on alleviation of poverty, and the findings will help improve the sustainability of livelihood capability of farming households. This study suggests impactful approaches to stabilizing mechanisms for poverty alleviation in rural areas over the longer term.

Abstract Considering the cooperative sector capabilities in organizing rural people, primarily focusing on empowering manpower and adopting a sustainable approach to basic resources (water and soil), village-cooperative initiative has emerged as a new concept by registering and forming 4565 new cooperatives in Iran’s rural regions. The present research which was conducted in two qualitative and quantitative phases designed a new model by integrating the new village-cooperative approach along with the sustainable livelihood’s framework theory. The study sample of the qualitative phase included 32 theorists of the village-cooperative initiative. To analyze the data, the grounded theory and three-step process of open coding, axial coding and selective coding were used using MAXqda18 software. Finally, a paradigm model was designed whose most important components included causal conditions (shocks and seasonal conditions), contextual conditions (trends and governmental support), intervening conditions (control and market development), central categories (sustainable livelihoods with a village- cooperative approach), strategies (coping and adaptation) and consequences (creating jobs, establishing cooperatives, supporting smart agriculture and strengthening social capital). The statistical quantitative phase population consisted of cooperatives members in the village-cooperative initiative (N=405), being selected through Cochran's formula with proportional sampling method summing up to198 people from 5 provinces. The data collection tool was a researcher-made questionnaire whose validity and reliability were confirmed. The Bayesian structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data. The results of the research quantitative phase showed that the variables of financial capital, physical capital, social capital, coping and adaptation strategies, human capital and natural capital were the most effective variables on village-cooperative initiative members’ sustainable livelihoods, respectively. Finally, a hybrid model based on the qualitative and quantitative studies was designed and suggestions were made; for instance, the creation of suitable grounds for off-farm activities such as rural industries and ecotourism. Resumo Considerando as capacidades do setor cooperativo na organização da população rural, focando principalmente na capacitação de mão de obra e na adoção de uma abordagem sustentável para os recursos básicos (água e solo), a iniciativa de cooperativa de aldeia surgiu como um novo conceito ao registrar e formar 4.565 novas cooperativas nas regiões rurais do Irã. A presente pesquisa, que foi conduzida em duas fases qualitativas e quantitativas, projetou um novo modelo integrando a nova abordagem cooperativa de aldeia junto com a teoria da estrutura de subsistência sustentável. A amostra do estudo da fase qualitativa incluiu 32 teóricos da iniciativa vila-cooperativa. Para analisar os dados, a teoria fundamentada e o processo de três etapas de codificação aberta, codificação axial e codificação seletiva foram usados o software MAXqda18. Finalmente, um modelo de paradigma foi desenhado, cujos componentes mais importantes incluíam condições causais (choques e condições sazonais), condições contextuais (tendências e apoio governamental), condições intervenientes (controle e desenvolvimento de mercado), categorias centrais (subsistência sustentável com uma abordagem cooperativa de aldeia), estratégias (enfrentamento e adaptação) e consequências (criação de empregos, estabelecimento de cooperativas, apoio à agricultura inteligente e fortalecimento do capital social). A população da fase quantitativa estatística consistiu de cooperados na iniciativa vila-cooperativa (N = 405), sendo selecionados através da fórmula de Cochran com método de amostragem proporcional totalizando 198 pessoas de cinco províncias. A ferramenta de coleta de dados foi um questionário elaborado pelo pesquisador cuja validade e confiabilidade foram confirmadas. A modelagem de equações estruturais bayesianas foi utilizada para analisar os dados. Os resultados da fase quantitativa da pesquisa mostraram que as variáveis de capital financeiro, capital físico, capital social, estratégias de enfrentamento e adaptação, capital humano e capital natural foram as variáveis mais eficazes na subsistência sustentável dos membros da iniciativa cooperativa de aldeia, respectivamente. Finalmente, um modelo híbrido baseado nos estudos qualitativos e quantitativos foi desenhado e sugestões foram feitas; por exemplo, a criação de terrenos adequados para atividades não agrícolas, como indústrias rurais e ecoturismo.

Elevated flood risk due to sea level rise is expected to increase migration from coastal areas. This presents an enormous policy challenge given the hundreds of millions of people living in low-lying coastal areas globally. Despite its relevance, little empirical research has been done on what drives coastal residents to migrate or stay under increased flood risk. This study aims to improve the knowledge base on this topic by collecting and analyzing unique survey data of flood-prone coastal residents in Central Vietnam. To explain permanent migration intentions under increased flood risk, we present respondents with realistic scenarios of more frequent severe flooding and utilize a theoretical framework that incorporates flood risk indicators as well as key indicators of sustainable livelihoods. Results indicate that flood risk could play a major role in future migration behavior; permanent migration intentions strongly increase under the scenarios of increased flood risk. Several individual characteristics also play an important role in the migration decision. Regression analyses reveal that respondents who implemented in situ flood adaptation, and thereby reduced their flood risk, are less inclined to migrate. Past experiences during flooding such as evacuation or the reception of help from community members or the government are also strong predictors of migration intentions. Of the sustainable livelihood indicators, social capital plays the most important role, where a larger social network inside (outside) the place of residence is negatively (positively) related to migration intentions. We draw lessons from these insights for policymakers aiming to anticipate the challenge of sea level rise-induced migration.

Livelihood diversification has become an integral focus of policies and investments aiming to reduce poverty, vulnerability, and pressure on fishery resources in coastal communities around the globe. In this regard, coastal fisheries in the Pacific Islands have long been a sector where livelihood diversification has featured prominently. Yet, despite the widespread promotion and international investment in this strategy, the ability of externally funded livelihood diversification projects to facilitate improved resource management and rural development outcomes often remains inconsistent. We argue these inconsistencies can be attributed to a conceptual ambiguity stemming from a lack of attention and awareness to the complexity of livelihood diversification. There is still much to learn about the process of livelihood diversification, both in its theoretical conceptualizations and its practical applications. Herein, we utilize a common diversity framework to clarify some of this ambiguity by distinguishing three diversification pathways. These pathways are illustrated using an ideal–typical Pacific Island coastal household and supported by examples provided in the literature that detail livelihood diversification projects in the Pacific. Through this perspective, we seek a more nuanced understanding of what is meant within the policy and practice goal of livelihood diversification. Thereby enabling more targeted and deliberate planning for development investments that facilitates outcomes in support of sustainable livelihoods.

Balancing biodiversity conservation and the socioeconomic well-being of ethnic minority communities presents a significant challenge in protected areas (PAs). Ecological compensation (EC) is a crucial policy instrument for improving the livelihood of affected residents, but its application in ethnic minority-dominant regions is complicated by cultural differences and fragile economic foundations. This study evaluates the impact of an innovative hybrid EC mechanism, integrating cash payment, employment support, and education incentive, on the livelihood resilience of ethnic minority groups and identifies the most cost-effective mechanism. Using field data from rural households in Potatso National Park, analyzed through hierarchical multiple regression and scenario simulations within the Sustainable Livelihood Framework, the study finds that: (i) hybrid EC mechanisms significantly improve overall livelihoods, with households receiving employment support and education incentive showing 0.074 and 0.052 higher average livelihood score, respectively (on a 0–1 scale); (ii) different EC types have varied effects across households; and (iii) hybrid EC mechanisms increase social benefits by 6.97%–37.65%, with only a 1.30%–20.15% cost increase compared to baseline scenario. The findings highlight the need for diversified and optimized EC policies to improve livelihood resilience and maximize cost-effectiveness in PAs.

The research investigated the challenges of agricultural sustainable development in Haryana by employing the Sustainable Livelihood Security Index (SLSI) as a comprehensive evaluative tool. The study integrates economic efficiency, ecological security and social equity dimensions through selected indicators and by utilizing Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to eliminate spatial variations among districts. The Economic Efficiency Index (EEI) reveals distinct agricultural performances with Karnal excelling in food production and Panchkula demonstrating efficient fertilizer use. The Ecological Security Index (ESI) highlights Gurgaon’s significant land use practices and Panchkula’s determinantal to forest conservation. The Social Equity Index (SEI) advancements in female literacy and healthcare. Integrating these three indices showed that Panchkula emerges as a paragon of overall sustainability, followed closely by Karnal, Sirsa and Gurgaon. Disparities in Nuh and Faridabad addressed the necessity for targeted interventions. These study findings offered to the policymakers about the crucial insights into district-specific needs which guiding them in the formulation of strategies for inclusive growth and sustainable development for each district’s unique challenges and opportunities.

Improving the provision and equitable accessibility of public services is an important aspect of poverty alleviation and necessary for rural revitalization. Farmers’ livelihood adaptive capacity is an important foundation for rural revitalization, and the mechanism by which it is influenced by public service delivery requires clarification. In this study, we construct a theoretical framework of public service delivery–livelihood capital–livelihood adaptive capacitiy of farmers and herders to measure the level and quality of public service delivery, based on the level of satisfaction of 334 farmers and herders we surveyed. The relationship between the three elements was verified using mediated effects analysis, which helped to accurately identify the key shortcomings of public service delivery and improve the delivery of public services to enhance the sustainable livelihood adaptive capacity of farmers and herders. We found that public service delivery has a significant positive impact on the livelihood adaptive capacity of farmers and herders, while livelihood capital plays an important mediating role, enhancing the direct impact of public service delivery. Thus, the government should pay attention to this transfer mechanism and actively cultivate farmers’ and herders’ livelihood capital to optimize the effects of rural public service delivery.

China’s largest-ever resettlement program is underway, aiming to restore ecosystems and lift ecosystem service providers out of the poverty trap and into sustainable livelihoods. We examine the impact of the relocation and settlement program (RSP) to date, reporting on an ecosystem services (ES) assessment and a 1400-household survey. The RSP generally achieves the goals of ES increase and livelihood restore. In biophysical terms, the RSP improves water quality, sediment retention, and carbon sequestration. In social terms, resettled households so far report transformation of livelihoods activities from traditional inefficient agricultural and forest production to non-farm activities. Increased income contributes to decrease the poverty rate and improve resettled households’ living condition and standard. Meanwhile, the RSP decreases households’ dependence on ES in terms of provisioning services. Difficulty and challenge also showed up subsequently after relocation. A major current challenge is to enable poorer households to move, while providing greater follow-up support to relocated households. While the program is unique to China, it illuminates widespread opportunities for addressing environmental and poverty-related concerns in a rapidly changing world.