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The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of different dryland warm-up protocols on knee isokinetic strength, vertical jumping, and sprint performance in competitive swimmers. Twenty-four male swimmers were randomly assigned to the FIFA 11 + group ( n  = 12) or the post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) group ( n  = 12). The FIFA 11 + group performed the FIFA 11 + warm-up program three times per week for 6 weeks, whereas the PAPE group consisted of performing general activities and three sets of five drop jumps. Performance test included concentric (con) and eccentric (ecc) isokinetic strength of the quadriceps (Q) and hamstrings (H) of the dominant (DL) and non-dominant (NDL) limbs at three angular velocities, countermovement jump (CMJ), squat jump (SJ) and a 50-m time trial. The conventional (Hcon: Qcon) and functional (Hecc: Qcon) ratios were calculated pre- and post- intervention. The FIFA 11 + group showed a significant increase in DL-Hcon ( p  < 0.05, ES = 1.0-1.8), and NDL-Hcon ( p  < 0.05, ES = 1.0-1.6) in all angular velocities, and DL-Qcon ( p  < 0.05, ES = 0.9) at 60°·s − 1 . The PAPE group significantly improved DL-Qcon at 180°·s − 1 , 240°·s − 1 (both p  < 0.05, ES = 1.0), and NDL-Qcon at 240°·s − 1 ( p  < 0.05, ES = 0.9). Additionally, FIFA 11 + showed significant improvement in DL-Hcon and NDL-Hcon (both p  < 0.05, ES = 0.9–1.8) compared with PAPE. FIFA 11 + increased DL-Hcon: Qcon 60 ( p  < 0.05, ES = 1.1) and NDL- Hcom: Qcon 60,240 (both p  < 0.05, ES = 1.2) compared with PAPE. Both groups significantly improved CMJ (FIFA 11 +  p  < 0.01, ES = 0.4 and PAPE p  < 0.01, ES = 0.3), SJ (both p  < 0.01, ES = 0.6) and 50-m swimming performance (FIFA 11 +  p  < 0.05, ES = -0.8 and PAPE p  < 0.05, ES = -0.6). Both warm-up protocols showed similar improvements in jumping ability and sprint swimming performance. The FIFA 11 + seemed more efficient in improving lower limb isokinetic strength and conventional strength ratios in male competitive swimmers.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is one of the latest strategies used to improve the performance of elite athletes. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of short- and long-term unihemispheric concurrent dual-site anodal tDCS of the primary motor cortex (M1) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) on swimming performance and maximal strength (1-RM), as well as physiological (blood lactate levels- BL and heart rate- HR), cognitive (reaction times- RTs and distance of perceived fatigue- DPF) and psychological (mental toughness- MT) variables. Nineteen elite male swimmers participated in a randomized and sham-controlled study over 25 days. Freestyle swimming (100 m) test times were recorded in the morning and evening as pre-intervention tests of swimming performance. The swimmers then received acute and multi-session tDCS (2 mA for 20 min; once daily; 3 days per week) in addition to their routine training. Two days after the 10th tDCS session, the participants repeated the swimming performance tests (morning and evening). In addition, 1-RM, RT and MT were assessed as pre-post intervention tests in a rested state the day before and after the swimming tests. After 10 sessions of tDCS, morning and evening swimming performance improved ( p  < 0.05) and evening BL and DPF, and MT scores were higher than pre-intervention values compared with sham. Mean and best RTs decreased ( p  < 0.05) in tDCS compared with sham. No significant differences were found for HR and 1-RM scores. We conclude that multi-session tDCS, but not single session, improves swimming performance more than sham-treatment, as well as affects physiological, psychological, and cognitive function variables.

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of free swimming (FS), aquatic resistance training (ART), and their combination (FS&ART) on the body composition, blood pressure, and physical fitness of older adults. The study employed a randomized controlled design, comparing three experimental groups with a control group. Eighty volunteers aged between sixty and seventy years (age: 66.2 ± 2.3 years; body mass index: 25.8 ± 4.3 kg/m²) participated in the 16-week intervention, consisting of two weekly sessions. Assessments were conducted at baseline and post-intervention, including anthropometric measurements, blood pressure readings, and the Senior Fitness Test. Significant differences were found between groups in post-intervention considering the chair stand test ( p  = 0.017; ES = 0.125), arm curl test ( p  = 0.029; ES = 0.111), 8-foot up and go test ( p  = 0.042; ES = 0.102), and walk test − 6 min ( p  = 0.005; ES = 0.156). Specifically, both ART (+ 20.1%; p  < 0.05) and FS&ART (+ 19.5%; p  < 0.05) showed significantly greater improvements in the chair stand test compared to the control group. Similarly, ART (+ 23.1%; p  < 0.05) and FS&ART (+ 18.7%; p  < 0.05) performed better than the control group. FS&ART also exhibited a significant improvement over the control group in the 8-foot up-and-go test (+ 14.6%; p  < 0.05). In the 6-minute walk test, FS (+ 19.4%; p  < 0.05) and FS&ART (+ 15.9%; p  < 0.05) both significantly outperformed the control group. This study found that FS improves cardiovascular endurance, while ART enhances muscular strength and endurance in older adults, with combined benefits for agility, suggesting integration of combined modalities into community wellness initiatives for enhanced physical fitness and health outcomes.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effective warm-up protocol using an added respiratory dead space (ARDS) 1200 ml volume mask to determine hypercapnic conditions, on the swimming velocity of the 50 m time trial front crawl. Eight male members of the university swimming team, aged 19–25, performed three different warm-up protocols: 1) standardized warm-up in water (WU CON ); 2) hypercapnic warm-up in water (WU ARDS ); 3) hypercapnic a 20-minute transition phase on land, between warm-up in water and swimming test (RE-WU ARDS ). The three warm-up protocols were implemented in random order every 7 th day. After each protocol, the 50 m time trial front crawl swimming (swimming test) was performed. The fastest time trial swimming of 50 m front crawl was achieved after the hypercapnic transition phase (RE-WU ARDS ) protocol and was 27.5 ± 1.6 seconds, 1.2% faster than hypercapnic warm-up protocol ( p = 0.01). This result was confirmed by a higher swimming average speed of the exercise test after RE-WU ARDS compared to WU ARDS ( p = 0.01). The use of ARDS provoked a state of tolerable hypercapnia (obtaining carbon dioxide concentration in arterialized blood pCO 2 > 45 mmHg) achieving a post-warm-up of WU ARDS value 49.7 ± 5.9 mmHg (compared to the control condition which was a statistically significant difference p = 0.02) and before time trial RE-WU ARDS 45.7 ± 2.1 mmHg ( p = 0.01 compared to WU CON ). After breathing through the 1200 ml ARDS mask during the 20-minute re-warm-up phase, there was a trend of faster time trial among participants compared to the control condition, and statistically significantly faster times compared to WU ARDS , indicating that further study is appropriate to verify the efficacy of the proposed method to improve swimming efficiency.

PurposeTo evaluate the effects of repeated use of cold-water immersion (CWI) during a training week on performance and perceptive outcomes in competitive adolescent swimmers.MethodsThis randomized-crossover study included 20 athletes, who received each intervention [CWI (14 ± 1 °C), thermoneutral water immersion (TWI) (27 ± 1 °C) as placebo, and passive recovery (PAS)] three times a week between the land-based resistance training and swim training. The interventions were performed in a randomized order with a 1-week wash-out period. We tested athletes before and after each intervention week regarding swim (100 m freestyle sprints) and functional performance (flexibility, upper and lower body power, and shoulder proprioception). We monitored athlete’s perceptions (well-being, heaviness, tiredness, discomfort and pain) during testing sessions using a 5-item questionnaire. Athlete preferences regarding the interventions were assessed at the end of the study. We used generalized linear mixed models and generalized estimating equations for continuous and categorical variables, respectively (intervention x time).ResultsWe found a time effect for swim performance (p = .01) in which, regardless the intervention, all athletes improved sprint time at post-intervention compared to baseline. There was an intervention effect for pain (p = .04) and tiredness (p = .04), but with no significant post-hoc comparisons. We found no significant effects for other outcomes. All athletes reported a preference for CWI or TWI in relation to PAS.ConclusionThe repeated use of CWI throughout a training week did not impact functional or swim performance outcomes of competitive adolescent swimmers. Perceptive outcomes were also similar across interventions; however, athletes indicated a preference for both CWI and TWI.

The purpose of this study was to compare the in-water force of young competitive swimmers using tethered swimming and differential pressure sensors. Thirty-one swimmers (16 girls and 15 boys) were randomly assigned to perform two in-water tests. Swimmers completed two maximum bouts of 25 m front crawl with a differential pressure system and a 30 s maximum bout with an attached load cell (tethered-swimming). The peak force (FPEAK, in N) of dominant and non-dominant upper limbs was retrieved for further analysis. Comparison between methods revealed significant differences in all force variables (p ≤ 0.05) and the biases (mean differences) were large in girls (FPEAK dominant, 45.89 N; FPEAK non-dominant, 43.79 N) and boys (FPEAK dominant, 67.26 N; FPEAK non-dominant, 61.78 N). Despite that, simple linear regression models between the two methods showed significant relationships with a moderate effect in all variables for girls, whereas in boys a high and moderate effect was verified for FPEAK of dominant and non-dominant limbs (respectively). It seems that using pressure sensors and tethered swimming leads to different FPEAK values in young competitive, where correction factors are needed to compare data between both methods.

The aim of this study was to analyse the front-crawl arm-pull kinetics and kinematics, comparing it before and after post-activation potentiation (PAP), and the associations between variables describing of the arm-pull kinetics. Twelve male competitive swimmers were randomly assigned to perform two different warm-ups in a crossover manner: (i) non-PAP (control condition); and (ii) PAP (experimental condition). PAP consisted of 2 × 5 arm-pulls with resistance bands by both upper-limbs. Eight minutes later, participants underwent a 25 m all-out trial in front-crawl arm-pull. Kinetics (i.e., peak thrust, mean thrust and thrust-time integral) and kinematics (i.e., speed and speed fluctuation) were collected by an in-house customised system composed of differential pressure sensors, speedo-meter and underwater camera. There was a significant and large improvement of the arm-pull kinetics after completing the warm-up with PAP sets (0.010 <  P  < 0.054, 0.50 < d < 0.74). There were non-significant and small effects of PAP on speed ( P  = 0.307, d = 0.18) and speed fluctuation ( P  = 0.498, d = 0.04). Correlation coefficients among kinetic variables were significant with large associations (0.51 < R < 0.90, 0.001 <  P  < 0.088). In conclusion, warm-ups including PAP conditioning sets elicit a large improvement in the thrust, but with small improvement in performance. Variables used to characterise thrust are strongly correlated and hence can be used interchangeably.

To date, the literature has failed to individuate a clear motivation for the performance decrement after a mental fatigue-inducing task. This study aimed to evaluate biomechanical and perceptual variables during a swimming training session in different mental fatigue states. Seven amateur triathletes watched a documentary, utilized a smartphone, or performed an AX-CPT for 45 min randomly on three different days. After, they performed a 15-min warm-up followed by 6 × 200 m at constant pre-set speed plus one 200 m at maximal effort. The mental fatigue status was assessed by the visual analog scale (VAS) and short-Stroop task results before, post-mental task, and post-swimming session. The biomechanical and motor coordination variables during swimming were assessed using five IMU sensors and video analysis. The heart rate and rate of perceived exertion were monitored during the task. No differences in biomechanical and perceptual variables were found between and within conditions. Higher mental fatigue was found only in the AX-CPT condition at post task by VAS. In this preliminary study, no changes in swimming biomechanics were highlighted by mental fatigue, but the warm-up performed may have counteracted its negative effects. Further studies are recommended.

Caffeine (CAF) has been shown to be an effective ergogenic aid in enhancing sports performance, including vertical jump (VJ), sprint, balance, agility, and freestyle swimming performance (FSP). However, whether acute CAF supplementation improves FSP in moderately trained female swimmers has not been well documented. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effects of CAF intake on vertical jump, balance, auditory reaction time (ART), and swimming performance in female swimmers. In a double-blind, cross-over design, eight moderately trained female swimmers (age: 21.3 ± 1.4 years, height: 161.2 ± 7.1 cm, body mass: 56.3 ± 6.7 kg, body mass index (BMI): 21.9 ± 1.3 kg/m2, and habitual CAF intake: 246.4 ± 111.4 mg/day) ingested caffeine (CAF) (6 mg/kg) or a placebo (PLA) 60 min before completing VJ, balance, ART, and 25/50 m FSP. CAF supplementation resulted in a significantly lower time both in 25m (p = 0.032) and 50m (p = 0.033) FSP. However, CAF resulted in no significant difference in VJ, ART, and RPE (p > 0.05). Balance test results showed a non-significant moderate main effect (d = 0.58). In conclusion, CAF seems to reduce time in short-distance swimming performances, which could be the determinant of success considering the total time of the race. Thus, we recommend coaches and practitioners incorporate CAF into swimmers’ nutrition plans before competitions, which may meet the high performance demands.

Purpose: We evaluated the feasibility of individualized sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) supplementation and its physiological effects on simulated artistic swimming duet performance, including blood buffering responses, perceived exertion, gastrointestinal (GI) tolerance, and performance scores. Methods: Seventeen (n = 17) elite adolescent female artistic swimmers completed an initial trial to determine individual time-to-peak blood bicarbonate concentration (Part 1). Subsequently, a subset (n = 7) completed a randomized, double-blind, crossover intervention (Part 2), performing competition duet routines (4 min) after ingesting either 0.3 g/kg NaHCO3 or a placebo timed to their individual alkalosis peak. Blood gas and lactate samples were taken pre- and post-performance. Performance was scored by blinded FINA adjudicators. GI discomfort was assessed before and after each routine. Results: Peak blood bicarbonate occurred at 52 ± 9 min post-ingestion, with a mean increase of 6.7 ± 1.8 mmol/L (g = 5.03). In Part 2 (n = 7), NaHCO3 significantly elevated pre- and post-performance pH (7.46 ± 0.02 vs. 7.37 ± 0.01; 7.34 ± 0.02 vs. 7.26 ± 0.03), HCO3− (29.5 ± 0.9 vs. 22.4 ± 0.4 mmol/L; 21.5 ± 1.2 vs. 15.7 ± 1.5 mmol/L), and base excess (5.9 ± 0.6 vs. −2.9 ± 0.5 mmol/L; −4.3 ± 0.8 vs. −10.3 ± 1.1 mmol/L) compared to the placebo (all p < 0.05, g = 3.99–14.93). Post-performance lactate was higher (9.3 ± 1.0 vs. 8.4 ± 0.9 mmol/L, g = 0.89), while rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was lower (12.9 ± 0.7 vs. 14.4 ± 0.7, p < 0.05, g = −2.14). Propulsion improved (6.66 ± 0.16 vs. 6.52 ± 0.20, g = 0.85), with no change in execution. Mild gastrointestinal symptoms were transiently elevated with NaHCO3. Conclusions: Individualized NaHCO3 dosing is a feasible and effective ergogenic strategy for artistic swimmers, enhancing systemic alkalosis and perceptual tolerance while preserving technical execution. These findings support the sport-specific integration of NaHCO3 to optimize anaerobic performance elements in high-level artistic swimming.