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"Swimming Training."
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Differences of Matrix Metalloproteinase 2 Expression between Left and Right Ventricles in Response to Nandrolone Decanoate and/or Swimming Training in Mice
Background: Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 plays an important role in the remodeling of left ventricles (LVs) and right ventricles (RVs). We investigated the differences of MMP-2 expression between LV and RV in response to nandrolone decanoate (ND), swimming training (ST), and combined ND and ST (NS) in mice, based on their structural, functional, and biochemical characteristics.
Methods: Totally 28 male C57B1 mice (6 weeks old; 20-23 g) were divided into four groups, including the control (n = 7), ND (n = 6), ST (n = 8), and NS (n = 7) groups. After respective treatments for 8 weeks, echocardiographic examination was used to assess the cardiac structure and function. Van Gieson stain was used to examine the fibrosis of LV and RV in response to different treatments, and Western blotting analysis was performed to explore different MMP-2 expressions between LV and RV in response to ND and/or ST. Analysis of variance was used for comparing the four groups.
Results: At 8 weeks, right ventricular dimension/body weight in the ND group was larger than the other three groups (F = 7.12, P < 0.05) according to the echocardiographic examination. Fibrosis induced by ND administration was increased more in RV (2.59%) than that in LV (2.21%). MMP-2 expression of the ND group in RV was significantly greater than the control and NS groups in RV and the corresponding ND group in LV.
Conclusion: The experimental data support the hypothesis that ND administration induces greater MMP-2 expression increase in RV compared to LV, leading to consequent RV dilation.
Journal Article
Intensity and Pace Calculation of Ultra Short Race Pace Training (USRPT) in Swimming—Take-Home Messages and Statements for Swimming Coaches
A recently referenced method known as ultra short race pace training (USRPT), designed to familiarize swimmers with the pace of a swimming event by using high volumes and submaximal intensities, has emerged as an efficient approach, enhancing performance and predicting swimming outcomes. Despite its recognized benefits, particularly its lower physiological burden compared to other training methods, research on USRPT is still in its early stages. There are misunderstandings related to its intensity and the pace of calculation. This systematic review aims to provide valid statements identifying the pros and cons of USRPT as a training stimulus and providing swimming coaches with key messages and advice about this training method. For the analysis, 90,612 studies from PubMed, EBSCO, Science Direct, and Google Scholar databases were screened to research the background, intensity, and pace calculation of the USRPT method, although only four met the inclusion criteria. The final screening of the selected studies was conducted using a PRISMA-P document. USRPT has the potential to become a dominant training stimulus, offering a precise alternative to the often vague training sets that many swimmers use. However, further studies focusing on specific aspects of intensity and pace calculation within USRPT sets are needed for comprehensive understanding. In conclusion, USRPT appears to be a submaximal variation of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) with low blood lactate relevance to swimming events. Also, the pace calculation must be implemented considering the different demands of each point of a swimming event.
Journal Article
Personalized skill transfer optimization in swimming training through multi-agent reinforcement learning driven digital twin environments
Traditional swimming training methodologies face inherent limitations in providing personalized, adaptive, and scalable training solutions that accommodate diverse learning patterns and individual athlete characteristics. This research introduces a novel framework integrating multi-agent reinforcement learning with digital twin technology to create an intelligent swimming training environment capable of delivering personalized skill transfer optimization through meta-learning strategies. The proposed system addresses conventional training limitations by providing adaptive, data-driven training recommendations that evolve based on individual swimmer characteristics and performance dynamics. The multi-agent architecture enables simulation of complex training scenarios while incorporating real-time feedback mechanisms that continuously refine training strategies. Key contributions include: (1) development of a comprehensive digital twin swimming environment modeling biomechanical and hydrodynamic processes, (2) implementation of multi-agent reinforcement learning algorithms for personalized sports training, (3) integration of meta-learning based skill transfer optimization enabling efficient knowledge transfer across swimmers and contexts, and (4) experimental validation demonstrating improved training efficiency and performance outcomes. Experimental results show 34% faster convergence rates and 22% higher final performance scores compared to baseline methods, with 2.7× faster skill acquisition rates and 89% retention rates over extended periods. The framework demonstrates robust adaptation capabilities across diverse swimmer populations while maintaining computational efficiency and system stability.
Journal Article
Swimming is superior to running in inducing physiological cardiac hypertrophy and enhancing myocardial performance
Aerobic exercise training (AET) can induce cardiac hypertrophy, but the specific adaptive response for different types of AET remains unclear. We evaluated nonsingular cardiac remodeling in rats through running (RT) and swimming (ST) training at approximately 75% of VO₂max. Male Wistar rats (8–10 weeks old; ~ 250 g) were divided into untrained (UT), RT, and ST groups. The RT and ST were performed five days a week, once daily for 60 min for eight weeks. Cardiopulmonary fitness was assessed by measuring maximal oxygen consumption and swimming time to exhaustion. Echocardiography evaluated left ventricular parameters, while myocardial mechanics were assessed through the papillary muscle. Histology and Western blotting were performed to evaluate cardiomyocyte size and proteins modulating phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K
110α
)/AKT1 signaling. Real-time PCR was used to assess the expression of genes and microRNAs involved in myocardial hypertrophy. Both AET protocols enhanced cardiopulmonary capacity, but only the ST group showed increased myocardial mass, cardiomyocyte growth, and LV cavity size, along with greater tension and papillary muscle shortening velocity. A more pronounced alteration in gene expression pattern for proteins modulating PI3K
110α
/AKT1 signaling was found in the ST group than in the RT group. A similar difference was also found for microRNA 1, 21, 27a, 124, and 144 expressions. ST is more effective than RT in inducing cardiac hypertrophy and enhancing contractility, linked to the PTEN-AKT-S6K1 pathway and increased expressions of microRNAs 1, 21, 27a, 124, and 144. Thus, ST is superior to RT for inducing physiological cardiac hypertrophy.
Journal Article
Effect of intensity training block on anxiety state and performance in competitive swimmers
An increase in training intensity could create changes in psychological and physiological variables in competitive athletes. For this reason, it is very relevant to know how an intensive training block could influence psychological variables in competitive swimmers. This study examined the effect of an intensive training block (HIT) for 2 weeks on the anxiety state and swimming performance compared to standard aerobic training.
Twenty-two male competition swimmers were randomly assigned to two groups: HIT group (
= 11; age = 16.5 ± 0.29 years) and control group following the standard training program (
= 11; age = 16.1 ± 0.33 years). Psychological status variables (cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety and self-confidence) and swimming performance (100-m front crawl) were measured pre-and post-test.
A significant effect of time was found for all psychological variables and swimming performance (F ≥ 17.6;
< 0.001; d ≥ 0.97). Furthermore, a significant group × time interaction effect was found in cognitive (F = 14.9;
< 0.001; d = 0.62) and somatic anxiety (F = 5.37;
= 0.031; d = 0.55) were found. Only a significant group effect was found in somatic anxiety (F = 27.1;
< 0.001; d = 1.2).
comparison revealed that both groups increased their cognitive anxiety and swimming performance, and decreased their self-confidence from pre to post test. However, cognitive anxiety increase significantly more in the HIT group compared to the control group. Furthermore, only the HIT training group significantly increased somatic anxiety over time, while somatic anxiety did not change significantly over time in the control group.
Our findings indicated that a sudden increase in training intensity increased state anxiety more than standard training, but both conditions similarly enhanced swimming performance. Although the current level of psychological state is not affecting swimming performance negatively over this period, it should be regularly monitored by psychologists as it over a longer training period perhaps could have a negative influence on swimming performance.
Journal Article