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The SAUR gene family
The family of small auxin up-regulated RNA (SAUR) genes is a family of auxin-responsive genes with ~60–140 members in most higher plant species. Despite the early discovery of their auxin responsiveness, their function and mode of action remained unknown for a long time. In recent years, the importance of SAUR genes in the regulation of dynamic and adaptive growth, and the molecular mechanisms by which SAUR proteins act are increasingly well understood. SAURs play a central role in auxin-induced acid growth, but can also act independently of auxin, tissue specifically regulated by various other hormone pathways and transcription factors. In this review, we summarize recent advances in the characterization of the SAUR genes in Arabidopsis and other plant species. We particularly elaborate on their capacity to fine-tune growth in response to internal and external signals, and discuss the breakthroughs in understanding the mode of action of SAURs in relation to their complex regulation.
Journal Article
Developing business application systems : on the specification and selection of software components and services
The prosperity of many businesses and institutions is strongly related to a high quality, cost-effective and fast development of application software. Oliver Skroch argues that the reuse of components and services counts among the few fundamental and most promising approaches when pursuing these objectives. He presents research results related to strategic, tactic, and operational ranges of consideration in component- and service-oriented software development.
Book
The BABY BOOM Transcription Factor Activates the LEC1-ABI3-FUS3-LEC2 Network to Induce Somatic Embryogenesis
Somatic embryogenesis is an example of induced cellular totipotency, where embryos develop from vegetative cells rather than from gamete fusion. Somatic embryogenesis can be induced in vitro by exposing explants to growth regulators and/or stress treatments. The BABY BOOM (BBM) and LEAFY COTYLEDON1 (LEC1) and LEC2 transcription factors are key regulators of plant cell totipotency, as ectopic overexpression of either transcription factor induces somatic embryo formation from Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) seedlings without exogenous growth regulators or stress treatments. Although LEC and BBM proteins regulate the same developmental process, it is not known whether they function in the same molecular pathway. We show that BBM transcriptionally regulates LEC1 and LEC2, as well as the two other LAFL genes, FUSCA3 (FUS3) and ABSCISIC ACID INSENSITIVE3 (ABI3). LEC2 and ABI3 quantitatively regulate BBM-mediated somatic embryogenesis, while FUS3 and LEC1 are essential for this process. BBM-mediated somatic embryogenesis is dose and context dependent, and the context-dependent phenotypes are associated with differential LAFL expression. We also uncover functional redundancy for somatic embryogenesis among other Arabidopsis BBM-like proteins and show that one of these proteins, PLETHORA2, also regulates LAFL gene expression. Our data place BBM upstream of other major regulators of plant embryo identity and totipotency.
Journal Article
Re-evaluation of transcription factor function in tomato fruit development and ripening with CRISPR/Cas9-mutagenesis
Tomato (
Solanum lycopersicum
) is a model for climacteric fleshy fruit ripening studies. Tomato ripening is regulated by multiple transcription factors together with the plant hormone ethylene and their downstream effector genes. Transcription Factors APETALA2a (AP2a), NON-RIPENING (NOR) and FRUITFULL (FUL1/TDR4 and FUL2/MBP7) were reported as master regulators controlling tomato fruit ripening. Their proposed functions were derived from studies of the phenotype of spontaneous mutants or RNAi knock-down lines rather than, as it appears now, actual
null
mutants. To study TF function in tomato fruit ripening in more detail, we used CRISPR/Cas9-mediated mutagenesis to knock out the encoding genes, and phenotypes of these mutants are reported for the first time. While the earlier ripening, orange-ripe phenotype of
ap2a
mutants was confirmed, the
nor null
mutant exhibited a much milder phenotype than the spontaneous
nor
mutant. Additional analyses revealed that the severe phenotype in the spontaneous mutant is caused by a dominant-negative allele. Our approach also provides new insight into the independent and overlapping functions of
FUL1
and
FUL2
. Single and combined
null
alleles of
FUL1
and
FUL2
illustrate that these two genes have partially redundant functions in fruit ripening, but also unveil an additional role for
FUL2
in early fruit development.
Journal Article
FRUITFULL controls SAUR10 expression and regulates Arabidopsis growth and architecture
MADS-domain transcription factors are well known for their roles in plant development and regulate sets of downstream genes that have been uncovered by high-throughput analyses. A considerable number of these targets are predicted to function in hormone responses or responses to environmental stimuli, suggesting that there is a close link between developmental and environmental regulators of plant growth and development. Here, we show that the Arabidopsis MADS-domain factor FRUITFULL (FUL) executes several functions in addition to its noted role in fruit development. Among the direct targets of FUL, we identified SMALL AUXIN UPREGULATED RNA 10 (SAUR10), a growth regulator that is highly induced by a combination of auxin and brassinosteroids and in response to reduced R:FR light. Interestingly, we discovered that SAUR10 is repressed by FUL in stems and inflorescence branches. SAUR10 is specifically expressed at the abaxial side of these branches and this localized activity is influenced by hormones, light conditions and by FUL, which has an effect on branch angle. Furthermore, we identified a number of other genes involved in hormone pathways and light signalling as direct targets of FUL in the stem, demonstrating a connection between developmentally and environmentally regulated growth programs.
Journal Article
Genetic control of meristem arrest and life span in Arabidopsis by a FRUITFULL-APETALA2 pathway
Monocarpic plants have a single reproductive cycle in their lives, where life span is determined by the coordinated arrest of all meristems, or global proliferative arrest (GPA). The molecular bases for GPA and the signaling mechanisms involved are poorly understood, other than systemic cues from developing seeds of unknown nature. Here we uncover a genetic pathway regulating GPA in
Arabidopsis
that responds to age-dependent factors and acts in parallel to seed-derived signals. We show that
FRUITFULL
(
FUL
), a MADS-box gene involved in flowering and fruit development, has a key role in promoting meristem arrest, as GPA is delayed and fruit production is increased in
ful
mutants.
FUL
directly and negatively regulates
APETALA2
expression in the shoot apical meristem and maintains the temporal expression of
WUSCHEL
which is an essential factor for meristem maintenance.
The lifespan of monocarpic plants is determined by coordinated arrest of shoot meristems. Here the authors show that this process is promoted by the FRUITFULL transcription factor which negatively regulates expression of the meristem maintenance factor
WUSCHEL
in an AP2-dependent manner.
Journal Article