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Technical standards are increasingly determining the development, production, trade in and marketing of goods and services. In order to ensure that technical regulations and product standards which vary from country to country do not create unnecessary obstacles to trade the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade was adopted during the Uruguay Round. It is paralleled by the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures which sets out the basic rules on how governments can apply food safety as well as animal and plant health measures without, however, using them as an excuse for protecting domestic producers. Prominent decisions under the WTO Dispute Settlement have interpreted those provisions. This volume gives a detailed account of the necessary parameters for technical standards and measures seeking to protect health and environment. Included are commentaries on Articles III, XI and XX of GATT 1994 which are equally relevant in this context. The article by article commentaries draw from a considerable body of case law, the work by the TBT and SPS Committee and the relevant legal literature. Attention is given to substantive requirements as well as the necessary standard setting procedures. Apart from a thorough analysis of the relevant and most recent jurisprudence including the Biotech Panel Report the commentary seeks to give answers to newly emerging issues, such as special needs of developing countries. It is an indispensable tool for practitioners and academics working in this field of WTO law.

\"This revealing and compelling title analyzes the illegal trade in endangered species from a criminological viewpoint and presents specific crime reduction techniques that could help save thousands of species from extinction\"--Provided by publisher.

International trade in exotic pets is an important and increasing driver of biodiversity loss and often compromises the standards required for good animal welfare. We systematically reviewed the scientific and gray literature and used the United Nations Environment Programme - World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) trade database to establish temporal and geographical trade patterns of live exotic birds, mammals, and reptiles and to describe trends in research, taxonomic representation, and level of threat and legal protection of species traded. Birds were the most species-rich and abundant class reported in trade; reptiles were second most abundant but unusually the most studied in this context; and mammals were least abundant in trade. Mammalian and reptilian species traded as pets were more likely to be threatened than expected by random. There have been a substantial number of Appendix 1 listed captive-bred mammals and birds and wild-caught birds and reptiles reported in trade to CITES. We identified the Middle East's emerging role as a driver of demand for exotic pets of all taxa alongside the well-established and increasing role of South America and Southeast Asia in the market. Europe, North America, and the Middle East featured most heavily in trade reports to CITES, whereas trade involving South America and Southeast Asia were given most emphasis in the literature. For effective monitoring of and appropriate response to the international exotic pet trade, it is imperative that the reliability and detail of CITES trade reports improve and that scientific research be directed toward those taxa and locations that are most vulnerable. El mercado internacional de mascotas exóticas es un factor importante y creciente de pérdida de la biodiversidad y continuamente compromete los estándares requeridos para un buen bienestar animal. Sistemáticamente revisamos la literatura cientifica y gris y usamos la base de datos de mercados de UNEPWCMC CITES para establecer patrones temporales y geográficos del mercado de aves, mamíferos y reptiles exóticos vivos y describir las tendencias en la investigación, la representación taxonómica y el nivel de amenaza y la protección legal de las especies comercializadas. Las aves fueron la clase con mayor riqueza de especies y la más abundante; los reptiles fueron la segunda más abundante pero inusualmente la más estudiada en este contexto; los mamíferos fueron los menos abundantes en el mercado. Las especies de mamíferos y reptiles comercializadas como mascotas tuvieron mayor probabilidad de estar amenazadas que lo esperado por el azar. Ha babido un número sustancial de especies de mamíferos y aves criados en cautiverio y listados en el Apéndice-I de aves y reptiles capturados en vida silvestre reportados en el mercado a CITES. Identificamos el papel emergente del Oriente Medio como conductor de la demanda de mascotas exóticas de todos los taxones junto con el bien establecido y creciente papel de América del Sur y el Sureste Asiático en el mercado. Europa, América del Norte y el Oriente Medio figuraron más en los reportes de mercado bechos a CITES, mientras que al mercado en América del Sur y el Sureste Asiático se le dio más énfasis en la literatura. Para un monitoreo efectivo de y una respuesta apropiada al mercado internacional de mascotas exóticas, es imperativo que la confiabilidad y el detalle de los reportes de mercado de CITES mejoren y que la investigación científica sea dirigida hacia esos taxones y las localidades que sean más vulnerables.

\"A reissue of Robert E. Hudec's seminal study of the situation of developing countries within the international trade system is once again available\"-- Provided by publisher.

Wildlife trade is a big and burgeoning business, but its welfare impacts have not been studied comprehensively. We review the animal welfare impacts of the wildlife trade as they were reported in the literature between 2006 and 2011. Rarely was the term welfare mentioned, evidence of welfare impact documented, or welfare improvement recommended. Literature focused on mammals and on animals killed on site, for luxury goods or food, and for traditional medicine. Welfare impacts may be underreported, particularly in international, illegal, and wild-caught trade and trade in reptiles. Greater attention should perhaps be paid to the welfare of animals traded alive and in larger numbers (e.g., birds, reptiles, amphibians) and to those—including mammals—potentially subject to greater impacts through live use (e.g., as pets). More evidence-based research is needed. Animal welfare should be integrated with wider issues; collaboration between conservationists and welfarists and the development of health and welfare levers to influence trade offer benefits to both people and wildlife.

A trade ban limits supply, therefore raising prices and driving black market poaching. Africa's western black rhino Diceros bicornis longipes was declared extinct by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 2011. Africa's other rhino populations are also under siege. South Africa is home to more than 90% of the world's 20,000 white rhino Ceratotherium simum , and 40% (more than 80% together with its neighbor Namibia), of the 5000 remaining black rhino ( 1 – 3 ). Yet, poaching in South Africa has, on average, more than doubled each year over the past 5 years (see the chart). If poaching continues to accelerate, Africa's remaining rhino populations may become extinct in the wild within 20 years ( 4 , 5 ).

Background Tax policy is considered the most effective strategy to reduce tobacco consumption and prevalence. Tax avoidance and tax evasion therefore undermine the effectiveness of tax policies and result in less revenue for governments, cheaper prices for smokers and increased tobacco use. Tobacco smuggling and illicit tobacco trade have probably always existed, since tobacco's introduction as a valuable product from the New World, but the nature of the trade has changed. Methods This article clarifies definitions, reviews the key issues related to illicit trade, describes the different ways taxes are circumvented and looks at the size of the problem, its changing nature and its causes. The difficulties of data collection and research are discussed. Finally, we look at the policy options to combat illicit trade and the negotiations for a WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) protocol on illicit tobacco trade. Results Twenty years ago the main type of illicit trade was large-scale cigarette smuggling of well known cigarette brands. A change occurred as some major international tobacco companies in Europe and the Americas reviewed their export practices due to tax regulations, investigations and lawsuits by the authorities. Other types of illicit trade emerged such as illegal manufacturing, including counterfeiting and the emergence of new cigarette brands, produced in a rather open manner at well known locations, which are only or mainly intended for the illegal market of another country. Conclusions The global scope and multifaceted nature of the illicit tobacco trade requires a coordinated international response, so a strong protocol to the FCTC is essential. The illicit tobacco trade is a global problem which needs a global solution.