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Half of humanity about 3 billion people are still relying on solid fuels for cooking and heating. Of that, about 2.5 billion people depend on traditional biomass fuels (wood, charcoal, agricultural waste, and animal dung), while about 400 million people use coal as their primary cooking and heating fuel (UNDP and WHO 2009). The majority of the population relying on solid fuels lives in Sub-Saharan Africa and in South Asia. In some countries in Central America and in East Asia and the Pacific, the use of solid fuels is also significant. The inefficient and unsustainable production and use of these fuels result in a significant public health hazard, as well as negative environmental impacts that keep people in poverty. Strategies to improve energy access to the poor have focused mainly on electricity access. They have often neglected non electricity household energy access. It is, however, estimated that about 2.8 billion people will still depend on fuel wood for cooking and heating in 2030 in a business-as-usual modus operandi (IEA 2010). The need for urgent interventions at the household level to provide alternative energy services to help improve livelihoods is becoming more and more accepted. This report's main objective is to conduct a review of the World Bank's financed operations and selected interventions by other institutions on household energy access in an attempt to examine success and failure factors to inform the new generation of upcoming interventions. First, the report provides a brief literature review to lay out the multidimensional challenge of an overwhelming reliance on solid fuels for cooking and heating. Second, it highlights how the Bank and selected governments and organizations have been dealing with this challenge. Third, it presents lessons learned to inform upcoming interventions. And finally, it indicates an outlook on the way forward.

Indoor air pollution in rural and resource-constrained households is primarily caused by the use of biomass fuel in cookstoves, a significant risk factor for morbidity and mortality throughout the world. This study uniquely investigates indoor microplastic pollution from cookstove emissions in Pakistani slums, as plastic has been identified as one of the major tertiary fuels used to start cookstoves, addressing a major research gap. Unlike previous local studies focused on outdoor air, this study identifies and characterizes polymeric particles in PM10 and PM2.5 from 2 different cookstoves, using FTIR and Raman spectroscopy, offering first-time molecular evidence in this context. Particulate matter (PM) samples were collected both from the traditional and the locally manufactured rocket biomass cookstove kitchens, within H-11 and F-11 slums in Islamabad, Pakistan. Two analytical techniques, Raman and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), were employed to identify and characterize microplastics in PM10 and PM2.5 samples. The detected polymers included polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, polyolefins, and polyurethanes. At Site 2, LDPE, polyolefins, and polypropylene were identified. Results from the comparative analysis of traditional and rocket stoves in PM10 and PM2.5 samples revealed a significant difference in the concentration of particulate matter contamination at both sites. The findings from this study indicate that the rocket stove had a lower concentration of particulate matter in PM10 and PM2.5 samples as compared to the traditional stove, which may suggest that microplastic concentration was also lower, thereby offering enhanced potential health benefits for users, as inhalation and continuous exposure to microplastics are associated with adverse health effects. Overall, ICS reduced PM10 concentrations by 38.73% and PM2.5 concentrations by 34.75% across both monitored sites. This study emphasizes the importance of using rocket stoves as they offer a superior alternative to traditional stoves by reducing particulate matter and microplastic exposure, making them a cleaner and safer cooking option in slum areas.

Carbon monoxide decreases the oxygen carrying capacity of blood. As a result, it reduces the supply of oxygen into body cells and tissues including vital organs. It is poisonous during pregnancy as it leads to high risk for the mother and foetus. It causes the developmental disorders, cerebral anoxic lesions and even death of foetus. The major aim of this study is to validate the non- invasive % COHb monitored data with modelled data. IAQ instruments are administered to monitor CO concentraction and % COHb level in recipient’s blood. Thus, the level of % COHb in blood is approximated using numerical modeling to validate the monitored data with modeled data. Twenty four hours average CO concentration with TCS house is found 8.65 ± 7.77 ppm, 7.39 ± 5.62 ppm, 6.69 ± 7.16 ppm, 4.76 ± 7.19 ppm, 4.48 ± 6.10 ppm in the order of case II > case I > case V > case III > case IV, respectively. Twenty four hours average CO concentration with ICS house is found 3.54 ± 4.41 ppm, 2.41 ± 3.93 ppm, 2.30 ± 2.24 ppm, 1.70 ± 2.93 ppm and 1.51 ± 1.24 ppm in the order of case I > case V > case II > case IV > case III respectively. The average CO concentration in breath by cook is found 3.75 (3.75 ± 2.35)ppm in ICS using house and 5.36 (5.36 ± 4.54)ppm in TCS using house with minimum 0.60 ppm and maximum 31.34 ppm. The CO exposure is found more than 13 h a day for TCS using house and 9 h a day for ICS using house. The average cook_CO exposure is found 5.36 (5.36 ± 4.54)ppm and 3.75 (3.75 ± 2.35)ppm in sampled house using TCS and ICS respectively. The average percentage COHb in sampled house using TCS and ICS is found 4.31 (4.3 ± 5.35) % and 3.72 (3.72 ± 2.67) % respectively. The correlation between numerical modelling of COHb with non- invasive COHb measurement is found significant i.e. P value <0.00001 establishing r 2 value 0.95 and 0.97 for ICS and TCS using house respectively.

The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the exposure of household women and professional male workers to combustion emission in the indoor and semi-outdoor environments, respectively, by using biochemical parameters and the biomarkers of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH). Female (WR n = 60) and male “cooks” (WC n = 60) exposed to the combustion emission of fuel wood and coal in rural/suburban areas of Pakistan were recruited in this study and compared to non-exposed female (CF) and male (CM) groups (n = 32 and 34, respectively). Urinary biomarkers of PAH exposure including 1-hyroxypyrene (1-OHPyr), α-naphthol, and β-naphthol were analyzed together with the biomarkers of effect, including the serum c-reactive proteins (CRP), white blood cells (WBCs), hemoglobin (Hb), red blood cells (RBC), and platelet (PLT) count. In addition, blood superoxide dismutase (SOD) and urinary level of 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) were evaluated to determine the oxidative stress and DNA damage, respectively. A questionnaire was used to document demographic-, health-, and exposure-related information. The results showed that urinary β-naphthol was almost 44 % higher in WR subjects than WC (median 7.69 vs. 3.39 μmol/mol-Cr, respectively; p = 0.01) and respective controls (CF). Higher urinary 8-OHdG were observed in WR (71.1 ng/mg-Cr) than WC (56.37 ng/mg-Cr) (p < 0.001), and lower life status and higher degree of headache were observed in WR than WC. In WCs, however, a low Hb and high WBC (8.29 × 10³ μL⁻¹, ranging between 6.1 and 10.6 × 10³ μL⁻¹) were observed in comparison with CM. The study shows that WC subjects used larger amount of fuel and were subjected to prolonged exposure. It was concluded that the role of ventilation is fundamental and WR were more exposed to PAHs despite the fact that WC spent more time in cooking (due to occupational requirement) than WR.

Bangladesh is one of the world's poorest countries. Nearly 80 percent of the nation's 140 million people reside in rural areas; of these, 20 percent live in extreme poverty. Geographically, many low-lying areas are vulnerable to severe flooding, while other regions are prone to drought, erosion, and soil salinity. Such an unfavorable agricultural landscape, combined with mismanagement of natural resources and increasing population pressure, is pushing many of the rural poor to the brink. Because Bangladesh is such a poor country, it also is one of the world's lowest energy producers. Total annual energy supply is only about 150 liters of oil equivalent per capita (International Energy Agency, or IEA 2003); in rural areas, conditions are even worse. Compared to other developing countries, Bangladesh uses little modern energy. Despite its successful rural electrification program, close to two-thirds of households remain without electricity and, with the exception of kerosene, commercial fuels are beyond reach for many. Moreover, biomass fuels are becoming increasingly scarce. Collected mainly from the local environment as recently as two decades ago, bio-fuels are fast becoming a marketed commodity as access to local biomass continues to shrink. This study, the first to concentrate on Bangladesh's energy systems and their effects on the lives of rural people, drew on these background studies, as well as other World Bank-financed research on indoor air pollution (IAP) and rural infrastructure, to present a rural energy strategy for the country. Much of this study's analytical underpinning was based on several background studies. This study also reanalyzed data from earlier research to better understand the benefits of modern energy use for rural households, farm activities, and small businesses.

In Tanzania, a majority of rural residents cook using firewood-based three-stone-fire stoves. In this study, quantitative performance differences between technologically advanced improved cooking stoves and three-stone-fire stoves are analysed. We test the performance of improved cooking stoves and three-stone-fire stoves using local cooks, foods, and fuels, in the semi-arid region of Dodoma in Tanzania. We used the cooking protocol of the Controlled Cooking Test following a two-pot test design. The findings of the study suggest that improved cooking stoves use less firewood and less time than three-stone-fire stoves to conduct a predefined cooking task. In total, 40 households were assessed and ask to complete two different cooking tasks: (1) a fast cooking meal (rice and vegetables) and (2) a slow cooking meal (beans and rice). For cooking task 1, the results show a significant reduction in firewood consumption of 37.1% by improved cooking stoves compared to traditional three-stone-fire stoves; for cooking task 2 a reduction of 15.6% is found. In addition, it was found that the time needed to conduct cooking tasks 1 and 2 was significantly reduced by 26.8% and 22.8% respectively, when improved cooking stoves were used instead of three-stone-fire-stoves. We observed that the villagers altered the initial improved cooking stove design, resulting in the so-called modified improved cooking stove. In an additional Controlled Cooking Test, we conducted cooking task 3: a very fast cooking meal (maize flour and vegetables) within 32 households. Significant changes between the initial and modified improved cooking stoves regarding firewood and time consumption were not detected. However, analyses show that both firewood and time consumption during cooking was reduced when large amounts (for 6-7 household members) of food were prepared instead of small amounts (for 2-3 household members).

Background Areke is a popular traditional distilled beverage in semi-urban and rural areas in Ethiopia. Traditional areke distillation uses an open-fire system that consumes a lot of firewood and produces a large amount of indoor air pollution. Methods The areke distiller apparatus (heat exchanger, condenser, energy-efficient stoves, storage tanks, and local areke extraction apparatus) was manufactured by technicians (welders). Different types of grains (wheat, millet, lupine, barley, and maize) were purchased from a neighborhood market. The traditional method of areke fermentation was prepared by an experienced woman brewer using a combination of ingredients and appropriate steps and procedures. The efficacy of a traditional stove, modified stove, and a combination of modified stove and double-pipe were evaluated . The amount of ethanol was estimated by measuring its refractive index and specific gravity. The sensory evaluation of areke samples was conducted by 10 consumer sensory panelists. Result The highest ethanol concentration in areke (53.75 ± 0.01 (% v/v)) was obtained from millet E ( dagusa E) in double-pipe distillation (E). The maize E ( bekolo E) of overall acceptance had the greatest score (4.5 ± 0.01) compared to other areke sensory parameters. The alcoholic strength of lupine E ( gibeto E) was scored as excellent (5.0 ± 0.01) compared to other areke sensory parameters. All judges agreed that traditional and double-pipe areke consumption was acceptable. The combination of double-pipe distillation and modified stove resulted in a 50% ± 0.15 reduction in the average amount of firewood used. The traditional open fire stove consumed more firewood (5.1 kg ± 0.1) than the combination of double-pipe distillation and modified stove (2.5 kg ± 0.01). Conclusion These results indicate that the combination of double-pipe distillation with a modified stove had better performance than traditional areke distillation.

This study examined the influence of socio-economic factors on the adoption of improved cookstoves (ICSs) and identified barriers to their dissemination in Wereta district, Amhara, Ethiopia. A structured cross-sectional approach was employed, surveying 308 households through questionnaires and interviews. Key socio-economic factors such as income level, family size, education, and age were found to significantly affect ICS adoption ( p  < 0.05), whereas cooking location, household decision-making, and involvement of societal stakeholders did not show a statistically significant impact ( p  > 0.05). The primary barriers to ICS adoption included limited awareness, high costs, and age-related factors. Addressing these challenges by targeting the significant socio-economic determinants is crucial for facilitating the transition from traditional to improved cookstoves. The findings offer valuable insights for policymakers, NGOs, research organizations, and manufacturers, highlighting potential areas for targeted intervention to enhance ICS adoption in the community.

Household bread and bakery product waste constitutes a growing issue in Algeria, with significant economic, environmental, and socio-cultural implications. This research is situated within the framework of sustainable food systems and responds to recent transformations in domestic food practices, driven by increased female labor force participation, time constraints, and the widespread availability of industrial bread, which have reshaped household food management and traditional home bread-making practices. The study aims to (1) review traditional Algerian breads, emphasizing their culinary, nutritional, and cultural significance; (2) examine household behaviors during the month of Ramadan in the city of Constantine, focusing on patterns of consumption, purchasing, waste generation, and strategies for reusing leftovers; and (3) assess the economic implications of these practices using the FUSIONS methodology and explore their contribution to household-level food sustainability. Methodologically, a cross-sectional exploratory survey was conducted among 100 married women, the majority of whom were middle-aged (62%; range: 27–71 years; mean age: 52.0 ± 10.21), well-educated (59% with a university degree), economically active (68%), and living in medium-sized households (63%). The findings reveal pronounced contrasts across bread categories. Industrial breads, particularly baguettes, are characterized by high daily purchase frequencies (4.16 ± 1.31 units/day) and the highest waste rates (12.67%), largely attributable to over-purchasing (92%) and low perceived value associated with subsidized prices, with convenience (100%) remaining the primary factor explaining their dominance. In contrast, traditional breads exhibit minimal waste levels (1.63%) despite frequent purchase (3.85 ± 0.70 loaves/day), reflecting more conscious food management shaped by strong cultural attachment, higher perceived value, and dietary preferences (100%). Modern bakery products, along with confections and pastries, the latter representing of 58% of total household food purchases, comprise a substantial share of food expenditure during Ramadan (2.16 ± 0.46 loaves/day and 12.07 and 7.28 ± 2.50 units/day, respectively), while generating relatively low levels of food waste (5.69%, 4.19%, and 0%, respectively). This suggests that higher prices and symbolic value encourage more careful purchasing behaviors and conscious consumption. Freezing leftovers (63%) emerges as the most commonly adopted waste-reduction strategy. Overall, this work provides original quantitative evidence at the household level on bread and bakery product waste in Algeria. It highlights the key socio-economic, cultural, and behavioral drivers underlying waste generation and proposes actionable recommendations to promote more sustainable food practices, in line with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 12 on responsible consumption and production.

Purpose The use of energy efficient cookstoves (EECS) has been promoted for a long and considered as instrumental in the efforts to mitigate the multiple social, economic and environmental consequences of traditional biomass cookstoves. Despite this, the adoption of EECS in pre-urban and rural Ethiopia is still very low. In response to this, the government of Ethiopia, in collaboration with international development organizations, implemented numerous initiatives aimed at improving the availability and use of EECS as part of the effort to support sustainable development. However, very little is known about the impact of the introduced EECS on improving the welfare of women. The purpose of this study is, therefore, to assess the impact of improved cookstoves projects on the welfare of women in Yaya Gullele district, Ethiopia. Design/methodology/approach A mixed research design was adopted to conduct the study. The quantitative data for the study were collected using a structured questionnaire by interviewing 388 randomly selected respondents. The data were analysed using both descriptive and inferential data analysis techniques, including the propensity score matching model using STATA. Findings Results of the study revealed that adoption of EECS has reduced fuel wood expense (124.65 Ethiopian Birr [ETB]/week), reduced five-year stove expense (404.67 ETB) and increased regular savings (116.58 ETB/month), which contributed for an increased annual income of participants (5,594.42 ETB). The result of the study also indicated that the use of EECS enabled the beneficiary women to reduce the amount of fuel wood use by 29.4 kg/week, which in turn reduced forest degradation and emission by 2.34 tons of CO2e/year/household. Besides, it reduced the drudgery on women in terms of reduced time to cook (53 min/day), reduced time to collect fuelwood and prepare food (3.95 h/week) and reduced frequency of fuelwood collection trips (3.42 trips/week). The study results, in general, indicated that the adoption of EECS improved the welfare of women in the study area, where the majority of women have been suffering from the burden of using traditional stoves and associated impacts for a long. Practical implications Energy is central to most of the development-related challenges and opportunities every country faces today. The result of the study implied that policies and strategies intended at improving the availability and use of EECS as part of the effort to support sustainable development need to consider integrating such context-referenced, locally manageable and affordable EECS into the clean developmental strategies of the country. Originality/value Insights from this study can support development practitioners and policymakers to make informed decisions regarding future interventions in the use of energy efficient that have the potential to several economic, social and environmental positive development outcomes.