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Primary large-vessel vasculitis encompasses conditions that, despite sharing many common features, constitute distinct entities that have their own prognostic implications. These conditions include giant cell arteritis and Takayasu arteritis, with isolated aortitis being increasingly recognised in the literature and studied within this disease spectrum. Epidemiological studies have evidenced a worldwide distribution of Takayasu arteritis. In giant cell arteritis, distinct clinical phenotypes with specific outcomes (ie, cranial and large vessel forms) have been recognised. The advancements that have been made in vascular imaging have enabled improvement in diagnosis and classification of these diseases, although their value in follow-up continues to be assessed. Targeted therapies that can induce clinical remission with reduced glucocorticoid exposure are emerging. However, many patients develop vascular damage over time, highlighting the need for further understanding of the pathophysiological link between inflammation, vascular injury, and remodelling.

Childhood-onset Takayasu Arteritis (c-TA) is a rare, large-vessel vasculitis seen in children that could predisposing patients to a high risk of mortality. Exercise has the potential to improve overall health in several diseases, but evidence remains scant in c-TA. The main objective of this study was to investigate the safety and potential therapeutic effects of exercise in c-TA. This was a 12-week, multicenter, randomized, controlled trial, to test the effects of a home-based, exercise intervention . standard of care in c-TA patients in remission. The primary outcomes were arterial inflammation, assessed by [ F] FDG- PET/MRI and systemic inflammatory markers. Secondary outcomes included, physical activity levels, functionality, body composition, disease-related parameters, and quality of life. Thirty-seven patients were assessed for eligibility, which represents the total number of c-TA patients being followed by the three specialized medical ambulatory services in Sao Paulo. After exclusions, fourteen c-TA patients (71.4% females) aged 12-25 years were randomly allocated into exercised (n=5) and non-exercised groups (n=9). Exercise did not exacerbate arterial inflammation. In fact, exercised patients had a reduction in the frequency of vessel segments with severe inflammation, whereas the non-exercised patients had an opposite response ( =0.007). Greater improvements in visceral fat, steps per day, functionality and physical component SF-36 were observed in the exercised patients ( 0.05). Exercise is safe and may improve visceral fat, physical activity levels, functionality, and physical component SF-36 in c-TA patients. Thus, exercise arises as a novel, evidence-based intervention to improve general health in c-TA. https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03494062?term=NCT03494062&draw=2&rank=1, identifier NCT03494062.

ObjectiveTo investigate the efficacy and safety of the interleukin-6 receptor antibody tocilizumab in patients with Takayasu arteritis (TAK).MethodsPatients with TAK who had relapsed within the previous 12 weeks were induced into remission with oral glucocorticoid therapy. In this double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, patients were randomly assigned 1:1 to receive weekly tocilizumab 162 mg or placebo subcutaneously, and oral glucocorticoids were tapered 10 %/week from week 4 to a minimum of 0.1 mg/kg/day until 19 patients relapsed. The primary endpoint was time to relapse of TAK, defined as ≥2 of the following: objective systemic symptoms, subjective systemic symptoms, elevated inflammation markers, vascular signs and symptoms or ischaemic symptoms.ResultsThe intent-to-treat and safety populations included 18 tocilizumab-treated and 18 placebo-treated patients. The per-protocol set (PPS) included 16 tocilizumab-treated and 17 placebo-treated patients. HRs for time to relapse of TAK were 0.41 (95.41% CI 0.15 to 1.10; p=0.0596) in the intent-to-treat population (primary endpoint) based on relapse in eight tocilizumab-treated and 11 placebo-treated patients and 0.34 (95.41% CI 0.11 to 1.00; p=0.0345) in the PPS. The secondary endpoints, time to relapse assessed by Kerr’s definition and clinical symptoms only, were consistent with the primary endpoint. Serious adverse events were reported in one tocilizumab-treated and two placebo-treated patients. There were no serious infections and no deaths.ConclusionAlthough the primary endpoint was not met, the results suggest favour for tocilizumab over placebo for time to relapse of TAK without new safety concerns. Further investigation is warranted to confirm the efficacy of tocilizumab in patients with refractory TAK.Trial registration numberJapicCTI-142616.

Takayasu’s arteritis (TAK) manifests as an insidiously progressive and debilitating form of granulomatous inflammation including the aorta and its major branches. The precise etiology of TAK remains elusive, with current understanding suggesting an autoimmune origin primarily driven by T cells. Notably, a growing body of evidence bears testimony to the widespread effects of B cells on disease pathogenesis and progression. Distinct alterations in peripheral B cell subsets have been described in individuals with TAK. Advancements in technology have facilitated the identification of novel autoantibodies in TAK. Moreover, emerging data suggest that dysregulated signaling cascades downstream of B cell receptor families, including interactions with innate pattern recognition receptors such as toll-like receptors, as well as co-stimulatory molecules like CD40, CD80 and CD86, may result in the selection and proliferation of autoreactive B cell clones in TAK. Additionally, ectopic lymphoid neogenesis within the aortic wall of TAK patients exhibits functional characteristics. In recent decades, therapeutic interventions targeting B cells, notably utilizing the anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody rituximab, have demonstrated efficacy in TAK. Despite the importance of the humoral immune response, a systematic understanding of how autoreactive B cells contribute to the pathogenic process is still lacking. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the biological significance of B cell-mediated autoimmunity in TAK pathogenesis, as well as insights into therapeutic strategies targeting the humoral response. Furthermore, it examines the roles of T-helper and T follicular helper cells in humoral immunity and their potential contributions to disease mechanisms. We believe that further identification of the pathogenic role of autoimmune B cells and the underlying regulation system will lead to deeper personalized management of TAK patients. We believe that further elucidation of the pathogenic role of autoimmune B cells and the underlying regulatory mechanisms holds promise for the development of personalized approaches to managing TAK patients.

Takayasu arteritis (TAK) is a less common large-vessel vasculitis which can occur in either children or adults. However, differences between pediatric-onset and adult-onset TAK have not been systematically analyzed. We undertook a systematic review (pre-registered on PROSPERO, identifier CRD42022300238) to analyze differences in clinical presentation, angiographic involvement, treatments, and outcomes between pediatric-onset and adult-onset TAK. We searched PubMed (MEDLINE and PubMed Central), Scopus, major recent international rheumatology conference abstracts, Cochrane database, and clinicaltrials.gov, and identified seven studies of moderate to high quality comparing pediatric-onset and adult-onset TAK. Meta-analysis of 263 pediatric-onset and 981 adult-onset TAK suggested that constitutional features (fever, and in subgroup analyses, weight loss), hypertension, headache, and sinister features of cardiomyopathy, elevated serum creatinine, and abdominal pain were more frequent in pediatric-onset TAK, whereas pulse loss/pulse deficit and claudication (particularly upper limb claudication) were more frequent in adult-onset TAK. Hata’s type IV TAK was more common in pediatric-onset TAK, and Hata’s type I TAK in adult-onset TAK. Children with TAK also appeared to require more intense immunosuppression with more frequent use of cyclophosphamide, biologic DMARDs, tumor necrosis factor alpha inhibitors, and, in subgroup analyses, tocilizumab in pediatric-onset TAK than in adult-onset TAK. Surgical or endovascular procedures, remission, and risk of mortality were similar in both children and adults with TAK. No studies had compared patient-reported outcome measures between pediatric-onset and adult-onset TAK. Distinct clinical features and angiographic extent prevail between pediatric-onset and adult-onset TAK. Clinical outcomes in these subgroups require further study in multicentric cohorts. Key Points • Pediatric-onset TAK more commonly presents with constitutional features, hypertension, cardiomyopathy, elevated serum creatinine, and abdominal pain. • Adult-onset TAK more commonly presents with pulse loss/pulse deficit or claudication (particularly of the upper limbs). • Angiographic type IV is more common in children, and type I in adults. • Remission and mortality are similar in pediatric-onset and adult-onset TAK.

BackgroundSince the publication of the European League Against Rheumatism (EULAR) recommendations for the management of large vessel vasculitis (LVV) in 2009, several relevant randomised clinical trials and cohort analyses have been published, which have the potential to change clinical care and therefore supporting the need to update the original recommendations.MethodsUsing EULAR standardised operating procedures for EULAR-endorsed recommendations, the EULAR task force undertook a systematic literature review and sought opinion from 20 experts from 13 countries. We modified existing recommendations and created new recommendations.ResultsThree overarching principles and 10 recommendations were formulated. We recommend that a suspected diagnosis of LVV should be confirmed by imaging or histology. High dose glucocorticoid therapy (40–60 mg/day prednisone-equivalent) should be initiated immediately for induction of remission in active giant cell arteritis (GCA) or Takayasu arteritis (TAK). We recommend adjunctive therapy in selected patients with GCA (refractory or relapsing disease, presence of an increased risk for glucocorticoid-related adverse events or complications) using tocilizumab. Methotrexate may be used as an alternative. Non-biological glucocorticoid-sparing agents should be given in combination with glucocorticoids in all patients with TAK and biological agents may be used in refractory or relapsing patients. We no longer recommend the routine use of antiplatelet or anticoagulant therapy for treatment of LVV unless it is indicated for other reasons.ConclusionsWe have updated the recommendations for the management of LVV to facilitate the translation of current scientific evidence and expert opinion into better management and improved outcome of patients in clinical practice.

Large-vessel vasculitis (LVV) manifests as inflammation of the aorta and its major branches and is the most common primary vasculitis in adults. LVV comprises two distinct conditions, giant cell arteritis and Takayasu arteritis, although the phenotypic spectrum of primary LVV is complex. Non-specific symptoms often predominate and so patients with LVV present to a range of health-care providers and settings. Rapid diagnosis, specialist referral and early treatment are key to good patient outcomes. Unfortunately, disease relapse remains common and chronic vascular complications are a source of considerable morbidity. Although accurate monitoring of disease activity is challenging, progress in vascular imaging techniques and the measurement of laboratory biomarkers may facilitate better matching of treatment intensity with disease activity. Further, advances in our understanding of disease pathophysiology have paved the way for novel biologic treatments that target important mediators of disease in both giant cell arteritis and Takayasu arteritis. This work has highlighted the substantial heterogeneity present within LVV and the importance of an individualized therapeutic approach. Future work will focus on understanding the mechanisms of persisting vascular inflammation, which will inform the development of increasingly sophisticated imaging technologies. Together, these will enable better disease prognostication, limit treatment-associated adverse effects, and facilitate targeted development and use of novel therapies.Large-vessel vasculitis is the most common primary vasculitis in adults, manifesting as inflammation of the aorta and its major branches. This Primer reviews the epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis and management of this disease, highlights its effects on patient quality of life, and discusses future research questions.

To describe the clinical features, treatment, and outcomes in a longitudinal cohort of patients with Takayasu arteritis (TAK). We retrospectively studied patients with newly diagnosed TAK evaluated from January 1, 1984, through December 31, 2009. The cohort included 126 patients who were predominantly white (85/103; 82.5%) and female (115/126; 91%). The median age at diagnosis was 31.6 years (interquartile range, 22.9-39.8 years). Median delay in diagnosis was 17.5 months (interquartile range, 7-41.8 months). Thirty-one patients (25%) were 40 years or older at diagnosis. Median delay in diagnosis for patients 40 years or older was 44.8 months compared with 28.3 months for those younger than 40 years (P<.001). Limb claudication was the presenting symptom in 64 of 123 patients (52%). Hata type V arteriographic abnormalities were the most common (57/100; 57%). Renal artery abnormalities were observed in 24 of 41 patients (58%) with new-onset hypertension. Inflammatory markers were elevated at diagnosis in 85 of 119 patients (71%). Vascular interventions were performed in 69 patients (55%). Seventy-nine patients (63%) were followed up for more than 1 year (median follow-up, 5.5 years; interquartile range, 2.9-10.0 years). In this subset, treatment consisted of corticosteroids in 73 patients (92%) and additional immunosuppressants in 52 patients (66%). At 5 years, 96% experienced at least one remission of any duration. The overall survival was 97% at 10 years and 86% at 15 years. Mortality was increased compared with the general population (standardized mortality ratio, 3.0; 95% CI, 1.0-8.9). There continues to be an unacceptably long delay in the diagnosis of TAK. Awareness of TAK in patients older than 40 years is needed. Morbidity was high despite immunosuppressive treatment. Survival was decreased in this cohort.

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) inhibitors have been found to exhibit certain efficacy in treating refractory Takayasu arteritis (TA) in clinic despite severe adverse effects. The aim of this study is to investigate a natural anti-TNF compound, curcumin, its function, and its potential as treatment against TA. In total, 246 patients who were diagnosed of acute TA participated have completed this clinical trial. They were randomly assigned in either treatment group or control group, in which they were daily administered with curcumin or placebo accordingly for 4 weeks with weekly revisits for data collection. The treatment outcome consisted of a primary one defined using Birmingham Vascular Activity Score (BVAS) and a secondary one defined by laboratory results, e.g., C-reactive protein (CRP), TNF-α, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR). In this study, the primary and secondary treatment outcomes were found to be steadily attenuated in patients who received curcumin treatment, while showed no significant change in patients in placebo group. TNF-α was found to be significantly correlated with BVAS scores ( γ 2  = 0.81, p  = 0.016), ESR ( γ 2  = 0.76, p  = 0.037), and plasma levels of CRP ( γ 2  = 0.79, p  = 0.041). The treatment outcome was greatly improved by curcumin administration probably due to its anti-TNF property.