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Geophysical observations from the 2011 moment magnitude (M w ) 9.0 Tohoku-Oki, Japan earthquake allow exploration of a rare large event along a subduction megathrust. Models for this event indicate that the distribution of coseismic fault slip exceeded 50 meters in places. Sources of high-frequency seismic waves delineate the edges of the deepest portions of coseismic slip and do not simply correlate with the locations of peak slip. Relative to the M w 8.8 2010 Maule, Chile earthquake, the Tohoku-Oki earthquake was deficient in high-frequency seismic radiation—a difference that we attribute to its relatively shallow depth. Estimates of total fault slip and surface secular strain accumulation on millennial time scales suggest the need to consider the potential for a future large earthquake just south of this event.

We study a map of the Internet (at the autonomous systems level), by introducing and using the method of k-shell decomposition and the methods of percolation theory and fractal geometry, to find a model for the structure of the Internet. In particular, our analysis uses information on the connectivity of the network shells to separate, in a unique (no parameters) way, the Internet into three subcomponents: (i) a nucleus that is a small ([almost equal to]100 nodes), very well connected globally distributed subgraph; (ii) a fractal subcomponent that is able to connect the bulk of the Internet without congesting the nucleus, with self-similar properties and critical exponents predicted from percolation theory; and (iii) dendrite-like structures, usually isolated nodes that are connected to the rest of the network through the nucleus only. We show that our method of decomposition is robust and provides insight into the underlying structure of the Internet and its functional consequences. Our approach of decomposing the network is general and also useful when studying other complex networks.

The helical coiling of plant tendrils has fascinated scientists for centuries, yet the underlying mechanism remains elusive. Moreover, despite Darwin's widely accepted interpretation of coiled tendrils as soft springs, their mechanical behavior remains unknown. Our experiments on cucumber tendrils demonstrate that tendril coiling occurs via asymmetric contraction of an internal fiber ribbon of specialized cells. Under tension, both extracted fiber ribbons and old tendrils exhibit twistless overwinding rather than unwinding, with an initially soft response followed by strong strain-stiffening at large extensions. We explain this behavior using physical models of prestrained rubber strips, geometric arguments, and mathematical models of elastic filaments. Collectively, our study illuminates the origin of tendril coiling, quantifies Darwin's original proposal, and suggests designs for biomimetic twistless springs with tunable mechanical responses.

The history of classification of the tribe Bignonieae and its genera are reviewed as context for a comprehensive new genus-level classification of the tribe Bignonieae (Bignoniaceae, Lamiales). This new classification is based on a well-supported phylogeny based on multiple molecular markers from both chloroplast and nuclear DNA, a morphological survey, and a broad sampling of taxa. Genera are circumscribed here as clades that are well supported as monophyletic by molecular data and also recognizable by one or more morphological synapomorphies. Perianthomega Bureau ex Baill. is here transferred from Bignoniaceae tribe Tecomeae into Bignonieae, and 21 genera and a total of 393 species are recognized in Bignonieae: Adenoccdymma Mart, ex Meisn. (82 species), Amphilophium Kunth (47), Anemopaegma Mart, ex Meisn. (45), Bignonia L. (28), Callichlamys Miq. (1), Cuspidaria DC. (19), Dolichandra Cham. (8), Fridericia Mart. (67), Lundia DC. (13), Manaosella J. C. Gomes (1), Mansoa DC. (12), Martinella · Baill. (2), Neojobertia Baill. (2), Pachyptera DC. ex Meisn. (4), Perianthomega (1), Pleonotoma Miers (17), Pyrostegia C. Presl (2), Stizophyllum Miers (3), Tanaecium Sw. (17), Tynanthus Miers (15), and Xylopkragma Sprague (7). Several genera are here circumscribed differently from previous classifications, in particular Memora Miers and Sampaiella J. C. Gomes are synonymized with Adenocalymma; Distictella Kuntze, Dktictis Mart, ex Meisn., Glaziova Bureau, Pithecoctenium Mart. ex DC., and Urbanolophium Melch. are synonymized with Amphüophium; Cydista Miers, Clytostoma Miers ex Bureau, Macranthisiphon Bureau ex K. Schum., Mussatia Bureau ex Baill., Phryganocydia Mart, ex Bureau, Potamoganos Sandwith, Roentgenia Urb., and Saritaea Dugand are synonymized with Bignonia; Macfadyena A. DC, Melloa Bureau, and Parabignonia Bureau ex K. Schum. are synonymized with Dolichandra; Arrabidaea DC. is synonymized with Fridericia; Gardnerodoxa Sandwith is synonymized with Neojobertia; Leucocalantha Barb. Rodr. is synonymized with Pachyptera; and Ceratophytum Pittier, Periarrabidaea A. Samp., Paragonia Bureau, Pseudocatalpa A. H. Gentry, and Spathicalyx J. C. Gomes are synonymized with Tanaecium. The genera Adenocalymma, Amphilophium, Fridericia, Dolichandra, and Tanaecium are formally emended here as to diagnosis and circumscription. A natural key, complete morphological descriptions, and illustrations characterize the accepted genera, and full generic synonymy and a catalogue of their component species summarize their basic nomenclature and geographic range. Three new names are published: B. neouliginosa L. G. Lohmann replaces Phryganocydia uliginosa Dugand; B. neoheterophylla L. G. Lohmann replaces Cydista heterophytta Seibert; and Tanaecium neobrasiliense L. G. Lohmann replaces Sanhilaria brasiliensis Baill. Thirty-two generic names are newly synonymized, and 144 new nomenclatural combinations are made. A lectotype is designated for one genus, Periarrabidaea A. Samp., and 78 species names. One species name is neotypified, Memora campicola Pilg. (= Adenocalymma campicola (Pilg.) L. G. Lohmann).

Abstract Background and Aims Anaesthesia for medical purposes was introduced in the 19th century. However, the physiological mode of anaesthetic drug actions on the nervous system remains unclear. One of the remaining questions is how these different compounds, with no structural similarities and even chemically inert elements such as the noble gas xenon, act as anaesthetic agents inducing loss of consciousness. The main goal here was to determine if anaesthetics affect the same or similar processes in plants as in animals and humans. Methods A single-lens reflex camera was used to follow organ movements in plants before, during and after recovery from exposure to diverse anaesthetics. Confocal microscopy was used to analyse endocytic vesicle trafficking. Electrical signals were recorded using a surface AgCl electrode. Key Results Mimosa leaves, pea tendrils, Venus flytraps and sundew traps all lost both their autonomous and touch-induced movements after exposure to anaesthetics. In Venus flytrap, this was shown to be due to the loss of action potentials under diethyl ether anaesthesia. The same concentration of diethyl ether immobilized pea tendrils. Anaesthetics also impeded seed germination and chlorophyll accumulation in cress seedlings. Endocytic vesicle recycling and reactive oxygen species (ROS) balance, as observed in intact Arabidopsis root apex cells, were also affected by all anaesthetics tested. Conclusions Plants are sensitive to several anaesthetics that have no structural similarities. As in animals and humans, anaesthetics used at appropriate concentrations block action potentials and immobilize organs via effects on action potentials, endocytic vesicle recycling and ROS homeostasis. Plants emerge as ideal model objects to study general questions related to anaesthesia, as well as to serve as a suitable test system for human anaesthesia.

We provide an overview of research on climbing plants from Charles Darwin to the present day. Following Darwin's interests, this review will focus on functional perspectives including attachment mechanisms and stem structure and function. We draw attention to a number of unsolved problems inviting future research. These include the mechanism for establishment of the twining habit, a quantitative description following the development of a tissue element through space and time, the chemistry of sticky exudates, the microstructure of xylem and the capacity for water storage, the vulnerability to embolism, and the mechanism for embolism repair. In conclusion we cite evidence that, in response to increasing CO2 concentration, anthropic perturbation and/ or increasing forest fragmentation, lianas are increasing relative to tree species. In the 21st century, we are returning to the multiscale, multidisciplinary approach taken by Darwin to understand natural history.

The climbing habit has evolved multiple times during the evolutionary history of angiosperms. Plants evolved various strategies for climbing, such as twining stems, tendrils and hooks. Tendrils are threadlike organs with the ability to twine around other structures through helical growth; they may be derived from a variety of structures, such as branches, leaflets and inflorescences. The genetic capacity to grow as a tendrilled climber existed in some of the earliest land plants; however, the underlying molecular basis of tendril development has been studied in only a few taxa. Here, we summarize what is known about the molecular basis of tendril development in model and candidate model species from key tendrilled families, that is, Fabaceae, Vitaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Passifloraceae and Bignoniaceae. Studies on tendril molecular genetics and development show the molecular basis of tendril formation and ontogenesis is diverse, even when tendrils have the same ontogenetic origin, for example leaflet-derived tendrils in Fabaceae and Bignoniaceae. Interestingly, all tendrils perform helical growth during contact-induced coiling, indicating that such ability is not correlated with their ontogenetic origin or phylogenetic history. Whether the same genetic networks are involved during helical growth in diverse tendrils still remains to be investigated.

Plants respond to herbivore attack with the release of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which can attract predatory arthropods and/or repel herbivores and thus serve as a means of defense against herbivores. Such VOCs might also be perceived by neighboring plants to adjust their defensive phenotype according to the present risk of attack. We exposed lima bean plants at their natural growing site to volatiles of beetle-damaged conspecific shoots. This reduced herbivore damage and increased the growth rate of the exposed plants. To investigate whether VOCs also can serve in signaling processes within the same individual plant we focused on undamaged \"receiver\" leaves that were either exposed or not exposed to VOCs released by induced \"emitter\" leaves. Extrafloral nectar secretion by receiver leaves increased when they were exposed to VOCs of induced emitters of neighboring plants or of the same shoot, yet not when VOCs were removed from the system. Extrafloral nectar attracts predatory arthropods and represents an induced defense mechanism. The volatiles also primed extrafloral nectar secretion to show an augmented response to subsequent damage. Herbivore-induced VOCs elicit a defensive response in undamaged plants (or parts of plants) under natural conditions, and they function as external signal for within-plant communication, thus serving also a physiological role in the systemic response of a plant to local damage.

Gibberellins (GAs) are key modulators of plant growth and development. PsGA3ox1 (LE) encodes a GA 3β-hydroxylase that catalyzes the conversion of GA 20 to biologically active GA1. To further clarify the role of GA3ox expression during pea (Pisum sativum) plant growth and development, we generated transgenic pea lines (in a lele background) with cauliflower mosaic virus35S-driven expression of PsGA3ox1 (LE). PsGA3ox1 transgene expression led to higher GA 1 concentrations in a tissue-specific and development-specific manner, altering GA biosynthesis and catabolism gene expression and plant phenotype. PsGA3ox1 transgenic plants had longer internodes, tendrils, and fruits, larger stipules, and displayed delayed flowering, increased apical meristem life, and altered vascular development relative to the null controls. Transgenic PsGA3ox1 overexpression lines were then compared with lines where endogenous PsGA3ox1 (LE) was introduced, by a series of backcrosses, into the same genetic background (BC LEle). Most notably, the BC LEle plants had substantially longer internodes containing much greater GA1 levels than the transgenic PsGA3ox1 plants. Induction of expression of the GA deactivation gene PsGA2ox1 appears to make an important contribution to limiting the increase of internode GA 1 to modest levels for the transgenic lines. In contrast, PsGA3ox1 (LE) expression driven by its endogenous promoter was coordinated within the internode tissue to avoid feed-forward regulation of PsGA2ox1, resulting in much greater GA 1 , accumulation. These studies further our fundamental understanding of the regulation of GA biosynthesis and catabolism at the tissue and organ level and demonstrate that the timing/localization of GA3ox expression within an organ affects both GA homeostasis and GA 1 levels, and thereby growth.

Growing consumer preference for natural products has prompted interest in the use of plant extracts as plant raw materials providing active ingredients for cosmetics. This study focuses on vine tendrils, a by-product of grape cultivation, as a sustainable source of bioactive compounds. The idea of loan extraction using components borrowed from the final formulation was applied to extract valuable compounds from vine tendrils. The effectiveness of different extraction media was compared by analyzing the chemical profile of the extracts obtained using LC–MS/MS and UV–VIS techniques. The results obtained indicate the potential of extracts from grapevine tendrils as plant materials rich in bioactive substances with antioxidant properties, which supports their use in cosmetic products aimed at improving hair condition and skin protection. It is important to emphasize that grapevine tendrils are considered waste material that must be removed during vineyard maintenance. Cosmetics based on the processed extracts were prepared and evaluated. The viscosity, foaming properties, color parameters, and irritation potential of the developed cosmetics were assessed. The obtained results demonstrated the potential of the waste material as a valuable source of natural cosmetic components.