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This review presents important botanical, chemical and pharmacological characteristics of Citrus limon (lemon)—a species with valuable pharmaceutical, cosmetic and culinary (healthy food) properties. A short description of the genus Citrus is followed by information on the chemical composition, metabolomic studies and biological activities of the main raw materials obtained from C. limon (fruit extract, juice, essential oil). The valuable biological activity of C. limon is determined by its high content of phenolic compounds, mainly flavonoids (e.g., diosmin, hesperidin, limocitrin) and phenolic acids (e.g., ferulic, synapic, p-hydroxybenzoic acids). The essential oil is rich in bioactive monoterpenoids such as D-limonene, β-pinene, γ-terpinene. Recently scientifically proven therapeutic activities of C. limon include anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer and antiparasitic activities. The review pays particular attention, with references to published scientific research, to the use of C. limon in the food industry and cosmetology. It also addresses the safety of use and potential phototoxicity of the raw materials. Lastly, the review emphasizes the significance of biotechnological studies on C. limon.

The chemical profile of Thymus proximus essential oil (EO) and its allelopathic, phytotoxic, and insecticidal activity was evaluated. Carvacrol, p-cymene, and γ-terpinene were detected as the major components of the EO, representing 85.9% of the total oil. About 50 g fresh plant material of T. proximus in a 1.5-L air tight container completely inhibited the seed germination of Amaranthus retroflexus and Poa anuua . Meanwhile, the EO exhibited potent phytotoxic activity, which resulted in 100% germination failure of both the test species when 2 mg/ml (for A. retroflexus ) and 5 mg/ml (for Poa annua ) oil was applied. The EO also triggered a significant insecticidal activity on Aphis gossypii with a LC 50 value of 6.34 ppm. Carvacrol was identified as the main active compound responsible for both the plant suppressing effect and the insecticidal activity of the EO. Our study is the first on the allelopathic, phytotoxic, and insecticidal activity of T. proximus EO, and the determination of the responsible compound, which indicated their potential of being further explored as environment friendly biopesticides.

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of thyme essential oil (TEO) on the planktonic growth and biofilm formation of Bacillus cereus (B. cereus). GC-MS analysis of TEO allowed the detection of 13 compounds, and the major constituents were p-cymene (29.7%), thymol (23.73%), γ-terpinene (16.21%), and 1,8-cineole (9.74%). TEO exhibited a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value against planktonic B. cereus of 0.25 mg/mL. The potent effect of TEO to inhibit the growth of planktonic B. cereus was due to cell membrane damage, as evidenced by reduced cell viability, protein changes, decreased intracellular ATP concentration, increased extracellular ATP concentration and cell membrane depolarization, and cellular morphological changes. In addition, TEO exerted a significant inhibitory effect on B. cereus biofilm formation, as confirmed by environmental scanning electron microscopic images. These findings suggested that TEO has the potential to be developed as a natural food additive to control foodborne contamination associated with B. cereus and its biofilm.

Common thyme (Thymus vulgaris L., Lamiaceae) is one of the most well-known plants in the world, widely used in medicine, culinary arts, and cosmetics. The aim of this study was to analyse the content and composition of essential oils (EO) obtained from the T. vulgaris commercial samples grown in Estonia and in various European countries. Gas chromatography was used to characterize the quality and diversity of chemotypes of the studied plant raw material of different origins. The samples of the T. vulgaris herb contained 3–28 mL/kg of EO, and in five samples it was below the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.) requirement (minimum 12 mL/kg). In total, 44 EO compounds were identified in the essential oils of the studied T. vulgaris samples. Among them, five principal compounds were carvacrol (2.3–87.5%), thymol (0.9–71.2%), p-cymene (0.3–26.0%), γ-terpinene (0.1–16.1%), and (E)-β-caryophyllene (0.6–9.2%). It was concluded that the main compound of T. vulgaris EO (n = 37) was thymol with an average content of 41.1%. Monoterpenoids (90.5%) and sesquiterpenoids (5.7%) were the most dominating groups of terpenoids in the studied EO. Regarding the minimum and maximum content of key compounds in EO, none of the studied samples (n = 22) fully met the requirements of Ph. Eur. 11. The content of the four most important terpenoids (thymol, carvacrol, p-cymene, and γ-terpinene) in the EO of T. vulgaris does not change much from the beginning to the end of the flowering period. Correlations between the content of the most important (>2%) components (n = 14) of the studied EO (n = 37) showed a level >0.9 in several cases. Among seven studied chemotypes of T. vulgaris EO, five contained thymol as one of the main components.

Thyme oil (TO) is derived from the flowers of various plants belonging to the genus Thymus. It has been used as a therapeutic agent since ancient times. Thymus comprises numerous molecular species exhibiting diverse therapeutic properties that are dependent on their biologically active concentrations in the extracted oil. It is therefore not surprising that oils extracted from different thyme plants present different therapeutic properties. Furthermore, the phenophase of the same plant species has been shown to yield different anti-inflammatory properties. Given the proven efficacy of TO and the diversity of its constituents, a better understanding of the interactions of the various components is warranted. The aim of this review is to gather the latest research findings regarding TO and its components with respect to their immunomodulatory properties. An optimization of the various components has the potential to yield more effective thyme formulations with increased potency.

The study aimed to assess 𝛾-Terpinene’s (𝛾-TER) neuroprotective potential in acute cerebral ischemia, characterized by reduced cerebral blood flow in rats. Middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), a standard method for inducing cerebral ischemia, was employed in male Wistar rats. 𝛾-TER at varying doses (5, 10, and 15 mg/kg) were intraperitoneally administered during reperfusion onset. Neurological outcomes, cerebral infarct size, edema, and enzymatic activities (SOD, GPx, and catalase) in the brain were evaluated using diverse techniques. The study examined gene expression and pathways associated with neuroinflammation and apoptosis using Cytoscape software, identifying the top 10 genes involved. Pro-inflammatory and pro-apoptotic factors were assessed through real-time PCR and ELISA, while apoptotic cell rates were measured using the TUNEL and Flow cytometry assay. Immunohistochemistry assessed apoptosis-related proteins like Bax and bcl-2 in the ischemic area. 𝛾-TER, particularly at doses of 10 and 15 mg/kg, significantly reduced neurological deficits and cerebral infarction size. The 15 mg/kg dose mitigated TNF-α, IL-1β, Bax, and caspase-3 gene and protein levels in the cortex, hippocampus, and striatum compared to controls. Furthermore, Bcl-2 levels increased in these regions. 𝛾-TER show cased neuroprotective effects by suppressing inflammation, apoptosis, and oxidation. In conclusion, 𝛾-TER, possessing natural anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic properties, shields the brain against ischemic damage by reducing infarction, edema, oxidative stress, and inflammation. It modulates the expression of crucial genes and proteins associated with apoptosis in diverse brain regions. These findings position 𝛾-TER as a potential therapeutic agent for ischemic stroke.

The intent of this study was to utilize distillation timeframes (DT) of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) essential oil (EO) to generate fractions with differential chemical compositions and bioactivity. Ten fractions were captured at the following distillation timeframes: 0.0–0.5, 0.5–1.0, 1.0–2.5, 2.5–5.0, 5.0–10, 10–30, 30–60, 60–90, 90–120, and 120–240 min. In addition, a control EO was collected from a straight 0–240 min non-stop distillation. ANOVA and advanced regression modeling revealed that the produced EO fractions possess substantial variation in the concentration of potentially desired compounds. The concentrations (%) of α-phellandrene, 3-carene, p-cymene, limonene, α-thujene, α-pinene, camphene, sabinene, β-pinene, and myrcene decreased, while the concentrations (%) of α-terpinene, γ-terpinene, terpinolene, and myristicin increased in later DT fractions. Nutmeg EO showed some antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum D6, but did not exhibit significant antifungal activity. In general, nutmeg seed oil yields increased with an increase of DT. These results may be utilized by industries using nutmeg EO.

Bioactivity of essential oils (EOs) from Monarda species has never been investigated on phytoparasitic nematodes. In this study, the EOs from two Italian ecotypes of Monarda didyma and M. fistulosa and their main compounds, carvacrol, γ-terpinene, o -cymene, and thymol, were evaluated for their in vitro activity on the infective stages of phytoparasitic nematodes Meloidogyne incognita and Pratylenchus vulnus , as well as on M. incognita egg hatch. Soil treatments with the two EOs were also investigated for their suppressiveness on M. incognita on tomato. Both EOs were strongly active on M. incognita juveniles, as a only 1.0 μL mL −1 LC50 value was evaluated after a 24-h exposure to both EOs, whereas a lower activity was recorded on P. vulnus (15.7 and 12.5 μL mL −1 LC50 values for M. didyma and M. fistulosa EOs, respectively). Among the EOs’ main compounds, carvacrol was highly active also at a short exposure in low concentrations, whereas γ-terpinene and thymol were much less active on both nematode species and o -cymene showed a discrete activity on P. vulnus only at the highest concentration. Hatch percent of M. incognita eggs treated with M. didyma and M. fistulosa EOs was always significantly lower than in water or in Tween 20 and Oxamyl solutions. In the experiment in soil, the multiplication of M. incognita and gall formation on tomato roots was significantly reduced by soil treatments with both EOs. The strong nematicidal activity of both Monarda EOs may suggest them as potential sources of new sustainable nematicidal products.

Acne is a highly prevalent skin disease with a great psychological impact on patients as self-perception, self-confidence, and depression. This work aimed to develop an anti-acne preparation from active anti-bacterial medicinal plants to circumvent the severe side effects and drug resistance commonly reported with topical erythromycin anti-acne preparations. Essential oils: Salvia officinalis L. (sage), Rosmarinus officinalis L. (rosemary), Commiphora myrrha Nees Engl. (myrrh), Origanum majorana L. (marjoram), Pelargonium zonale L. L’Hér. ex Aiton (geranium) and Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. (chrysanthemum) were extracted by hydrodistillation and analyzed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The anti-acne activities of the oils against Cutibacterium acnes ATCC 6919 were evaluated by microdilution methods to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC). The most active essential oils were loaded in a film-forming nanogel prepared with chitosan, pluronic F127 and glycerol in the ratio of 3:1:1, prior to investigation in a murine acne in vivo model. Marjoram and chrysanthemum oils showed the highest antimicrobial activity against C. acnes (MIC = 0.156% v/v and 0.125% v/v, respectively). GC/MS of the actives showed that gamma-terpinene (26.46%) and terpinen-4-ol (22.24%) were the predominant constituents in marjoram, whereas chrysanthenone (32.79%) was the main component in chrysanthemum. The formulated essential oil-loaded film-forming nanogels of both oils exhibited significant anti-acne activity in mice via reducing the bacterial loads, activating the antioxidant nuclear factor erythroid 2–related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway and inhibiting the inflammatory tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) pathway. Further studies should be designed to evaluate the clinical evidence for the use of marjoram and chrysanthemum oil products in acne treatment.

The aim of the current study is to investigate the influence of light intensity, quality of light and alternative membrane sytems on the growth and headspace-GC/MS chemical analysis of Plectranthus amboinicus cultivated in vitro. Nodal segments were grown under light intensities (26, 51, 69, 94 and 130 µmol m−2 s−1) provided by cool-white fluorescent lamps. Apical segments were grown under light-emitting diodes blue; red; 1 blue/2.5 red; 2.5 blue/1 red; 1 blue/1 red and white fluorescent lamps. Apical and nodal segments were grown under alternative membrane and membrane-free systems. One, two or four PTFE membranes were used on the lid of the culture vessel. The membranes provided natural ventilation and worked as filters. The results have shown significant differences in the growth and carvacrol content, as well as in the content of carvacrol precursors (γ-terpinene and p-cymene) in different treatments. Among all tested light intensities, the significant increase in the dry weight and in the carvacrol content of plantlets derived from the nodal segments was recorded at 69 µmol m−2 s−1. The monochromatic red led to greater shoot length and higher dry weight in plantlets derived from the apical segments, as well as to carvacrol accumulation greater than that provided by the fluorescent lamps. The culture vessel enclosure by one and two membranes led to higher dry weight in plantlets derived from the apical and nodal segments, respectively. They also showed higher carvacrol content. Thus, it is possible optimizing the growth and carvacrol content in P. amboinicus cultivated in vitro by adjusting these environmental parameters.