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What is temperature?
This title inspires a solid understanding of the concept of temperature. Readers also discover how a thermometer is used to measure temperature using units called degrees.
Book
Digital Thermometers: Its Types, Utilities, and Global Trade Prospects for India
Digital thermometer, a developed product from the mercury based aged Clinical thermometer is an apparent device used to sensitize the body temperature with six different latest types of innovation. These are used not only to detect body temperatures of human but also used in animal medicines and industries to check the boiling points. As the world is inching towards alien era, the infusing these thermometers with mobile apps and clouding the data is not a wonder. Understanding the raise of influenzas across the globe triggered biomedical companies to win early global demands and record their presence in global markets. India is also a great player in international demand and supply of biomedical instruments and devices. Government of India, assigned Indian Trade Clarification Harmonized System for digital thermometer. The 8-digit Code allotted is 90251910. This article focuses on the different types of digital thermometer, its utilities and the Indian trade analysis with select countries data.
Journal Article
Non-Contact Infrared Thermometers and Thermal Scanners for Human Body Temperature Monitoring: A Systematic Review
In recent years, non-contact infrared thermometers (NCITs) and infrared thermography (IRT) have gained prominence as convenient, non-invasive tools for human body temperature measurement. Despite their widespread adoption in a range of settings, there remain questions about their accuracy under varying conditions. This systematic review sought to critically evaluate the performance of NCITs and IRT in body temperature monitoring, synthesizing evidence from a total of 72 unique settings from 32 studies. The studies incorporated in our review ranged from climate-controlled room investigations to clinical applications. Our primary findings showed that NCITs and IRT can provide accurate and reliable body temperature measurements in specific settings and conditions. We revealed that while both NCITs and IRT displayed a consistent positive correlation with conventional, contact-based temperature measurement tools, NCITs demonstrated slightly superior accuracy over IRT. A total of 29 of 50 settings from NCIT studies and 4 of 22 settings from IRT studies achieved accuracy levels within a range of ±0.3 °C. Furthermore, we found that several factors influenced the performance of these devices. These included the measurement location, the type of sensor, the reference and tool, individual physiological attributes, and the surrounding environmental conditions. Our research underscores the critical need for further studies in this area to refine our understanding of these influential factors and to develop standardized guidelines for the use of NCITs and IRT.
Journal Article
Fundamental Sensor Response Time Limitations of Practical Air Temperature Measurement
Air temperature measurements in naturally ventilated thermometer screens underpin the instrumental climate record. Increasing automation is, however, revealing limitations. One is through thermometer time response, especially in light winds or calm conditions, often at the daily temperature minimum. The exponential time response τ63 ${\\tau }_{63}$ for thermometers enclosed within a Stevenson screen is a key parameter, but poorly known. Here, τ63 ${\\tau }_{63}$ is evaluated in a practical experimental situation against the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)'s recommended sensor τ63≤20 ${\\tau }_{63}\\le 20$ s. We find τ63 ${\\tau }_{63}$ increases with sensor diameter d $d$, with only a d $d$ = 2 mm sensor meeting WMO expectations, even then requiring ambient wind speeds ≥3ms−1 ${\\ge} 3\\,\\mathrm{m}{\\mathrm{s}}^{-1}$. Typical d $d$ = 4 mm sensors never meet the criterion when either force‐ or naturally ventilated, with τ63≥20 ${\\tau }_{63}\\ge 20$ mins in a naturally ventilated arrangement under calm conditions. Inadequate τ63 ${\\tau }_{63}$ will lead to underestimation of the diurnal temperature range or other local measures derived from daily temperature maxima and minima.
Journal Article
Key problems in early wine-spirit thermometers and the “true Réaumur” thermometer
The main problems of early wine-spirit thermometers, with special reference to the eighteenth century, are considered with a holistic approach based on historical sources, physical mechanisms, and mathematical relationships. Thermometers were hardly comparable and were vulnerable at extreme temperatures, including calibration. Wine-spirit and the vapor pressure exerted at different temperatures, especially in proximity of the boiling points of spirit and water, are analyzed, because they caused the failure of glass tubes. The method suggested by Réaumur of completely removing air from the tube when it was sealed and the opposite one by Micheli du Crest of leaving some air inside are discussed, as well as advantages and disadvantages of using wine-spirit at different mole fractions of ethyl alcohol and water. The original, so-called “true Réaumur” thermometer, its calibration, scale, and response are investigated. The equations that evaluate the deviation from linearity for various factors are derived. Equations are given to convert readings taken with the “true Réaumur” and other early thermometers to Celsius, and at the same time correcting them from the departures due to wine-spirit and the particular calibration. Finally, the direct Celsius scale has been found to be known earlier than believed, in 1740.
Journal Article
Studying the Accuracy and Function of Different Thermometry Techniques for Measuring Body Temperature
The purpose of this study was to determine which thermometry technique is the most accurate for regular measurement of body temperature. We compared seven different commercially available thermometers with a gold standard medical-grade thermometer (Welch-Allyn): four digital infrared thermometers (Wellworks, Braun, Withings, MOBI), one digital sublingual thermometer (Braun), one zero heat flux thermometer (3M), and one infrared thermal imaging camera (FLIR One). Thirty young healthy adults participated in an experiment that altered core body temperature. After baseline measurements, participants placed their feet in a cold-water bath while consuming cold water for 30 min. Subsequently, feet were removed and covered with a blanket for 30 min. Throughout the session, temperature was recorded every 10 min with all devices. The Braun tympanic thermometer (left ear) had the best agreement with the gold standard (mean error: 0.044 °C). The FLIR One thermal imaging camera was the least accurate device (mean error: −0.522 °C). A sign test demonstrated that all thermometry devices were significantly different than the gold standard except for the Braun tympanic thermometer (left ear). Our study showed that not all temperature monitoring techniques are equal, and suggested that tympanic thermometers are the most accurate commercially available system for the regular measurement of body temperature.
Journal Article
Carbon Dots as New Generation Materials for Nanothermometer: Review
Highly sensitive non-contact mode temperature sensing is substantial for studying fundamental chemical reactions, biological processes, and applications in medical diagnostics. Nanoscale-based thermometers are guaranteeing non-invasive probes for sensitive and precise temperature sensing with subcellular resolution. Fluorescence-based temperature sensors have shown great capacity since they operate as “non-contact” mode and offer the dual functions of cellular imaging and sensing the temperature at the molecular level. Advancements in nanomaterials and nanotechnology have led to the development of novel sensors, such as nanothermometers (novel temperature-sensing materials with a high spatial resolution at the nanoscale). Such nanothermometers have been developed using different platforms such as fluorescent proteins, organic compounds, metal nanoparticles, rare-earth-doped nanoparticles, and semiconductor quantum dots. Carbon dots (CDs) have attracted interest in many research fields because of outstanding properties such as strong fluorescence, photobleaching resistance, chemical stability, low-cost precursors, low toxicity, and biocompatibility. Recent reports showed the thermal-sensing behavior of some CDs that make them an alternative to other nanomaterials-based thermometers. This kind of luminescent-based thermometer is promising for nanocavity temperature sensing and thermal mapping to grasp a better understanding of biological processes. With CDs still in its early stages as nanoscale-based material for thermal sensing, in this review, we provide a comprehensive understanding of this novel nanothermometer, methods of functionalization to enhance thermal sensitivity and resolution, and mechanism of the thermal sensing behavior.
Journal Article
Current Developments in Wearable Thermometers
Wearable thermometers are popular devices for measuring body temperature during fever, as well as for monitoring basal temperature in women. They are easy to handle, inexpensive, accurate and provide continuous recordings. Most wearable thermometers are connected to a smart phone or tablet to display data. Many types of wearable thermometer are available, such as touch, patch and invisible (radiometric) types. In this review, we describe and discuss currently available wearable thermometers.
Journal Article