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Background. In the northeastern United States, tick-borne diseases are a major public health concern. In controlled studies, a single springtime application of acaricide has been shown to kill 68%-100% of ticks. Although public health authorities recommend use of acaricides to control tick populations in yards, the effectiveness of these pesticides to prevent tick bites or human tick-borne diseases is unknown. Methods. We conducted a 2-year, randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial among 2727 households in 3 northeastern states. Households received a single springtime barrier application of bifenthrin or water according to recommended practices. Tick drags were conducted 3-4 weeks after treatment on 10% of properties. Information on human-tick encounters and tick-borne diseases was collected through monthly surveys; reports of illness were validated by medical record review. Results. Although the abundance of questing ticks was significantly lower (63%) on acaricide-treated properties, there was no difference between treatment groups in human-tick encounters, self-reported tick-borne diseases, or medical-record-validated tickborne diseases. Conclusions. Used as recommended, acaricide barrier sprays do not significantly reduce the household risk of tick exposure or incidence of tick-borne disease. Measures for preventing tick-borne diseases should be evaluated against human outcomes to confirm effectiveness.

Background: Zoonotic risks in exposed students are poorly documented in Belgium. According to the literature, even though human tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) infection risk has increased significantly in southern Belgium, no previous human serological survey has demonstrated specific antibodies directed at TBE virus. Methods and principal findings: The aim of this paper was to perform a representative serological survey on sera involving students at the University of Liege, in the southern part of Belgium, to discover possible exposure to TBEV. A total of 207 sera samples were randomly chosen and analyzed using ELISA IgM (with 1 positive student out of 207) and ELISA IgG (with 10 positive students out of 207), subsequent serial immunofluorescence antibody testing (IFAT) IgG (with 8 positive students out of 10 positive in ELISA IgG) and serial IFAT IgM (with 1 negative student out of 1 positive in ELISA IgM), and confirmatory tests, i.e., 50% and 90% plaque reduction neutralization tests (PRNTs) (1 strongly positive student out of 8 positive in IFAT). Conclusions and significance: The exposure of students from the southern part of Belgium (area with increasing risk) to TBEV was assessed for the first time. Antibodies against TBEV could only be demonstrated in 1 out of 207 students. This finding contributes to better decision-making in public health and prevention and management of tick-borne diseases in the context of climate change. Awareness among all students should be prioritized, with prevention measures against tick bites, particularly during forest and recreational activities contributing to risk, to maintain the current low seroprevalence levels.

Understanding ecological niches of major tick species and prevalent tick-borne pathogens is crucial for efficient surveillance and control of tick-borne diseases. Here we provide an up-to-date review on the spatial distributions of ticks and tick-borne pathogens in China. We map at the county level 124 tick species, 103 tick-borne agents, and human cases infected with 29 species (subspecies) of tick-borne pathogens that were reported in China during 1950−2018. Haemaphysalis longicornis is found to harbor the highest variety of tick-borne agents, followed by Ixodes persulcatus , Dermacentor nutalli and Rhipicephalus microplus . Using a machine learning algorithm, we assess ecoclimatic and socioenvironmental drivers for the distributions of 19 predominant vector ticks and two tick-borne pathogens associated with the highest disease burden. The model-predicted suitable habitats for the 19 tick species are 14‒476% larger in size than the geographic areas where these species were detected, indicating severe under-detection. Tick species harboring pathogens of imminent threats to public health should be prioritized for more active field surveillance. Ticks are an important vector of disease in China, posing threats to humans, livestock and wild animals. Here, Zhao et al. compile a database of the distributions of the 124 tick species known in China and 103 tick-borne pathogens and predict the additional suitable habitats for the predominant vector species.

The highest annual incidence of human tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) in Sweden ever recorded by the Swedish Institute for Communicable Disease Control (SMI) occurred last year, 2011. The number of TBE cases recorded during 2012 up to 6th August 2012 indicates that the incidence for 2012 could exceed that of 2011. In this review of the ecology and epidemiology of TBE in Sweden our main aim is to analyse the possible reasons behind the gradually increasing incidence of human TBE during the last 20 years. The main TBE virus (TBEV) vector to humans in Sweden is the nymphal stage of the common tick Ixodes ricinus . The main mode of transmission and maintenance of TBEV in the tick population is considered to be when infective nymphs co-feed with uninfected but infectible larvae on rodents. In most locations the roe deer, Capreolus capreolus is the main host for the reproducing adult I. ricinu s ticks. The high number of roe deer for more than three decades has resulted in a very large tick population. Deer numbers have, however, gradually declined from the early 1990s to the present. This decline in roe deer numbers most likely made the populations of small rodents, which are reservoir-competent for TBEV, gradually more important as hosts for the immature ticks. Consequently, the abundance of TBEV-infected ticks has increased. Two harsh winters in 2009–2011 caused a more abrupt decline in roe deer numbers. This likely forced a substantial proportion of the “host-seeking” ticks to feed on bank voles ( Myodes glareolus ), which at that time suddenly had become very numerous, rather than on roe deer. Thus, the bank vole population peak in 2010 most likely caused many tick larvae to feed on reservoir-competent rodents. This presumably resulted in increased transmission of TBEV among ticks and therefore increased the density of infected ticks the following year. The unusually warm, humid weather and the prolonged vegetation period in 2011 permitted nymphs and adult ticks to quest for hosts nearly all days of that year. These weather conditions stimulated many people to spend time outdoors in areas where they were at risk of being attacked by infective nymphs. This resulted in at least 284 human cases of overt TBE. The tick season of 2012 also started early with an exceptionally warm March. The abundance of TBEV-infective “hungry” ticks was presumably still relatively high. Precipitation during June and July was rich and will lead to a “good mushroom season”. These factors together are likely to result in a TBE incidence of 2012 similar to or higher than that of 2011.

Hyalomma scupense (syn. Hyalomma detritum) is a two-host domestic endophilic tick of cattle and secondarily other ungulates in the Maghreb region (Africa). This species transmits several pathogens, among which two are major livestock diseases: Theileria annulata and Theileria equi. Various other pathogens are also transmitted by this tick species, such as Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Ehrlichia bovis. Hyalomma scupense is common in sub-humid and semi-arid areas of several regions in the world, mainly in the Maghreb region. In this region, adults attach to animals during the summer season; larvae and nymphs attach to their hosts during autumn, but there is a regional difference in H. scupense phenology. There is an overlap between immature and adult ticks, leading in some contexts to a dramatic modification of the epidemiology of tick-borne diseases. This tick species attaches preferentially to the posterior udder quarters and thighs. Tick burdens can reach 130 ticks per animal, with a mean of 60 ticks. Calves are 70 times less infested than adult cattle. The control can be implemented through six options: (i) rehabilitation of the farm buildings by roughcasting and smoothing the outer and inner surfaces of the enclosures and walls. This control option should be recommended to be combined with a thorough cleaning of the farm and its surrounding area. With regard to Theileria annulata infection, this control option is the most beneficial. (ii) Acaricide application to animals during the summer season, targeting adults. (iii) Acaricide application during the autumn period for the control of the immature stages. (iv) Acaricide application to the walls: many field veterinarians have suggested this option but it is only partially efficient since nymphs enter deep into the cracks and crevices. It should be used if there is a very high tick burden or if there is a high risk of tick-borne diseases. (v) Manual tick removal: this method is not efficient since the ticks can feed on several other animal species in the farm. This control option can lead to a reduction of the tick population, but not a decrease in tick-borne disease incidence. (vi) Vaccination: this control option consists of injecting the protein Hd86; trials have shown a partial effect on nymphs, with no effect on adult ticks. Combination of two of these control options is recommended in regions where there are high burdens of important tick vectors. Further studies are needed to improve our knowledge on this tick species in the Maghreb region, since the number of published studies on Hyalomma scupense in this region is very limited. Hyalomma scupense (syn. Hyalomma detritum) est une tique diphasique, domestique, endophile, elle est fréquente chez les bovins et secondairement chez d’autres ongulés dans la région du Maghreb. Cette espèce transmet plusieurs pathogènes, dont deux provoquent des maladies majeures : Theileria annulata et Theileria equi. Différents autres pathogènes sont également transmis par cette espèce de tique, tels que Anaplasma phagocytophilum et Ehrlichia bovis. Hyalomma scupense est commune dans les régions subhumides et semi-arides de plusieurs régions du monde, principalement dans le Maghreb. Les adultes sont observés sur les animaux en été, les larves et les nymphes se fixent sur leurs hôtes durant l’automne, mais il existe une différence régionale de la phénologie d’H. scupense. Il y a un chevauchement entre les stades immatures et les tiques adultes, et ce phénomène induit, dans certains contextes, une importante modification de l’épidémiologie des infections transmises par les tiques. Cette tique se fixe préférentiellement au niveau des quartiers postérieurs des mamelles et des cuisses. L’intensité d’infestation peut atteindre 130 tiques avec une moyenne de 60 tiques. Les veaux sont 70 fois moins infestés que les adultes. La lutte peut être réalisée par six méthodes: (i) Amélioration des locaux d’élevage par un crépissage et un lissage des façades externes et internes des murs de l’étable. Cette option de lutte doit être inévitablement accompagnée d’un nettoyage drastique de l’étable et de son pourtour. En considérant l’infection par Theileria annulata, cette option de lutte est la plus bénéfique. (ii) Application d’acaricides sur les animaux pendant la saison estivale ciblant les adultes. (iii) Application d’acaricides pendant l’automne pour la lutte contre les stades immatures. (iv) Application d’acaricides sur les murs : cette option a été proposée par plusieurs vétérinaires de terrain mais elle est seulement partiellement efficace parce que les nymphes pénètrent profondément dans les fissures et les crevasses. Elle doit être utilisée si l’infestation par les tiques est élevée ou s’il y a un risque élevé de maladies transmises par les tiques. (v) Détiquage manuel : c’est une technique qui n’est pas effective car les tiques peuvent se nourrir sur plusieurs autres espèces d’hôtes dans l’élevage. Cette option de lute peut induire une réduction de la population de tiques mais pas de l’incidence des maladies transmises par les tiques. (vi) Vaccination : cette option de lutte consiste à injecter la protéine Hd86, les essais ont montré des effets partiels sur les nymphes mais sans effets sur les tiques adultes. L’association de deux de ces options de lutte est recommandée dans les régions à forte intensité des vecteurs. Des études ultérieures sont nécessaires pour améliorer nos connaissances sur cette espèce dans la région du Maghreb puisque le nombre d’études publiées sur H. scupense dans la région du Maghreb est très réduit et la connaissance sur cette tique est fragmentaire. الزجاجي العين (Hyalomma scupense) (مرادف H. detritum) هو نوع ثنائي الطور، أليف، مستبطن ، شائع في الماشية و بشكل ثانوي عند ذوات حوافر في مناطق أخرى بالمنطقة المغاربية. و ينقل هذه النوع العديد من الجراثيم ، منهما اثنين رئيسيين وهما : طفيلي الحمى المدارية (Theileria annulata) و طفيلي يرقان الخيول (Theileria equi). وينقل هذا النوع من القراد جراثيم أخرى نذكر منها : الانبلازما (Anaplasma phagocytophilum) و الإيرليخية البقرية (Ehrlichia bovis). الزجاجي العين (H. scupense) نوع شائع في المناطق شبه الرطبة وشبه القاحلة في العديد من أنحاء العالم، وخاصة في المغرب العربي. تم العثور على البالغين على جسم الحيوانات في الصيف، و تعلق اليرقات و الحوريات على مضيفاتها خلال الخريف، ولكن هناك فرقا اقليميا في دراسة الأحداث البيولوجية للزجاجي العين (H. scupense). هناك تداخل بين المراحل الغير ناضجة و القراد البالغ، تؤدي هذه الظاهرة في بعض السياقات، الى تغيير كبير في وبائيات الأمراض المنقولة عبر القراد. يلتصق هذا النوع من القراد بشكل تفضيلي في الثديين الخلفين والفخذين. يمكن أن تصل شدة الإصابة إلى 130 قرادا بمتوسط عدد 60 من القراد. العجول هي 70 مرة أقل اصابة من بالغي الحيوانات. تتم المقاومة بستة طرق : (1) تحسين الاسطبلات من خلال التجصيص و صقل الواجهات الخارجية و الداخلية لجدران الحظيرة. يجب أن يقترن هذا الخيار حتما بتنظيف جذري للحظيرة و محيطها. اعتبارا للإصابة بطفيلي الحمى المدارية، خيار المقاومة هذا هو الأكثر فائدة. (2) استعمال مبيدات القراد على الحيوانات خلال موسم الصيف كي يستهدف البالغين من القراد. (3) استعمال مبيدات القراد في الخريف لمكافحة اليرقات و الشرانق. (4) رش مبيدات القراد على الجدران : وقد اقترح هذا الخيار من قبل العديد من الأطباء البياطرة و لكن فعاليتها نسبية لأن الشرانق تدخل بعمق في الصدوع والشقوق. ينبغي أن تستخدم هذه الطريقة إذا كانت نسبة الإصابة بالقراد مرتفعة أو إذا كان هناك خطرا كبيرا ناتجا عن وجود امراض منقولة عبر القراد. (5) قلع القراد باليد: هذه الطريقة غير ناجعة لان القراد يمكن أن يتغذى من العديد من الأنواع المضيفة الموجودة بالحضيرة. يمكن هذا الخيار من انخفاض في عدد القراد ولكن ليس في حالات الإصابة بالأمراض المنقولة عبر القراد. (6) التطعيم: يرتكز هذا الخيار علي حقن البروتين Hd86 و قد ابرزت التجارب وجود مفعول جزئي على الحوريات ولكن ليس له اي تأثير على كبار القراد. ينصح بجمع اثنين من هذه الخيارات للسيطرة في حالة وجود كثافة عالية للنواقل. هناك حاجة ماسة لدراسات إضافية حتى نحسن معرفتنا لهذا النوع في المنطقة المغاربية حيث عدد الدراسات المنشورة و المتعلقة بالزجاجي العين (H. scupense) في المنطقة المغاربية صغير جدا والمعرفة المتعلقة بهذا القراد مجزأة.

Background Tick-borne pathogens threaten livestock health and productivity in Southeast Asia. Despite growing regional interest, epidemiological data from the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) remain insufficient and underreported. Methods We collected 227 ticks from 63 cattle across northern, central, and southern Lao PDR. Species were morphologically identified as Rhipicephalus microplus and Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato and confirmed by sequencing of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene. Pathogen screening was conducted via polymerase chain reaction (PCR), with sequence identities verified using the GenBank database. Multivariate analyses assessed regional variation. Results Detected pathogens included the apicomplexan protozoans Babesia bigemina (7%), Babesia bovis (2.6%), and Theileria sp. (10.6%) as well as the bacteria Anaplasma marginale (18.9%), Anaplasma sp. (2.2%), Ehrlichia sp. (6.6%), Ehrlichia minasensis (0.4%), and Aureimonas altamirensis (1.3%). Anaplasma marginale was the most prevalent. Codetections were common, with multiple ticks harboring two or more pathogens. Some double detection occurred more frequently than expected by chance. Conclusions This study presents the first comprehensive evidence of diverse tick-borne pathogens circulating in cattle ticks from Lao PDR, revealing high genetic similarity to globally recognized strains alongside distinct region-specific detection patterns. Notably, it also constitutes the first report of A. marginale , E. minasensis , B. bigemina , B. bovis , and Theileria sp. in cattle ticks in the country. These findings underscore the urgent need for integrated tick and pathogen surveillance within a One Health framework, with significant implications for regional disease monitoring, livestock health management, and zoonotic risk mitigation. Graphical Abstract

Tickborne diseases (TBDs) such as Lyme disease result in ≈500,000 diagnoses annually in the United States. Various methods can reduce the abundance of ticks at small spatial scales, but whether these methods lower incidence of TBDs is poorly understood. We conducted a randomized, replicated, fully crossed, placebo-controlled, masked experiment to test whether 2 environmentally safe interventions, the Tick Control System (TCS) and Met52 fungal spray, used separately or together, affected risk for and incidence of TBDs in humans and pets in 24 residential neighborhoods. All participating properties in a neighborhood received the same treatment. TCS was associated with fewer questing ticks and fewer ticks feeding on rodents. The interventions did not result in a significant difference in incidence of human TBDs but did significantly reduce incidence in pets. Our study is consistent with previous evidence suggesting that reducing tick abundance in residential areas might not reduce incidence of TBDs in humans.

Lyme and other tick-borne diseases are increasing in the United States. Development of tick control tools have focused primarily on the blacklegged tick, Ixodes scapularis Say. Application of acaricides or entomopathogenic fungal agents to kill host-seeking ticks or ticks on rodents can suppress I. scapularis abundance in residential landscapes, but evidence is lacking for impact on human tick bites or tick-borne disease. Similar studies remain limited for the lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum (L.). Other knowledge gaps include how well homeowners and pest control companies perform in the broadcast application of tick-killing products, relative to high efficacy reported in research studies, and the tick-killing potential of natural product formulations exempt from Environmental Protection Agency registration. Area-wide control based on preventing ticks from feeding on their main reproductive host, the white-tailed deer, can suppress populations of both I. scapularis and A. americanum. Some studies also suggest an impact on Lyme disease cases, but this needs to be further validated in larger-scale intervention studies. The effectiveness, scale, cost, and implementation of various tick management strategies are important considerations in efforts to reduce human tick encounters and tick-borne disease. Additional barriers include weak incentives for industry and academia to develop, test, and register new tick and pathogen control technologies, including vaccines targeting humans, tick reproductive hosts, or wildlife pathogen reservoirs. Solutions will need to be ‘two-pronged': improving the tick and pathogen control toolbox and strengthening the public health workforce engaging in tick control at local and state levels.

Ticks and tick-borne diseases affect animal and human health worldwide and are the cause of significant economic losses. Approximately 10% of the currently known 867 tick species act as vectors of a broad range of pathogens of domestic animals and humans and are also responsible for damage directly due to their feeding behaviour. The most important tick species and the effects they cause are listed. The impact on the global economy is considered to be high and although some estimates are given, there is a lack of reliable data. The impact of ticks and tick-borne diseases on animal production and public health and their control are discussed.