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"Token Economy"
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The cryptocurrency revolution : finance in the age of Bitcoin, blockchains and tokens
\"For a long time, the world of cryptocurrencies and blockchains was viewed as a niche space of little interest to mainstream business and finance sectors. With J.P. Morgan, Facebook, Walmart, and even some central banks investing in these new technologies, this has undoubtedly changed. The Cryptocurrency Revolution explains the most important takeaways from the continued growth of digital currencies and blockchains and explores the transformative possibilities of borderless payments and machine-to-machine transactions. Written in jargon-free and accessible language, this book examines the key value proposition of Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies and how blockchains could enable banks to become more efficient. It looks at the potential impact of company-backed digital currencies (such as Facebook's Libra) and how governments and regulators around the world are reacting to new innovations. With discussion of the principles of tokenomics and the difference between public and private blockchains, The Cryptocurrency Revolution is the essential guide for professionals wishing to understand the threats and opportunities of the changing world of money\"-- Provided by publisher.
Book
Rate Dependence and Token Reinforcement? A Preliminary Analysis
Changes in token exchange-production schedules may alter behavior when token-production schedules and token-exchange schedules are held constant. Although research suggests accumulated exchange-production schedules may support higher rates of responding relative to distributed exchange-production schedules, this finding is inconsistent across different participants and studies. The concept of rate dependence—which describes a characteristic pattern in which changes in responding following an intervention are dependent upon baseline rates of behavior—may partly explain these inconsistent findings. Thus, the purpose of this preliminary investigation was to examine token schedule effects for the presence of rate-dependent characteristics using data obtained from published token economy investigations with human participants. Results from these analyses demonstrate that rate-dependent phenomena may have generality to token reinforcement, and potentially explain some heterogeneity in the applied literature on exchange-production schedules.
Journal Article
Effect Size for Token Economy Use in Contemporary Classroom Settings: A Meta-Analysis of Single-Case Research
Recent meta-analyses of the effectiveness of token economies (TEs) report insufficient quality in the research or mixed effects in the results. This study examines the contemporary (post-Public Law 94-142) peer-reviewed published single-case research evaluating the effectiveness of TEs. The results are stratified across quality of demonstrated functional relationship using a nonparametric effect size (ES) that controls for undesirable baseline trends in the analysis. In addition, moderators (i.e., classroom setting, age of participant, outcomes, use of response cost, and use of verbal cueing) were analyzed. Eighty-eight AB phase contrasts were calculated from 28 studies (1980-2014) representing 90 participants and produced a weighted mean ES of 0.82 (SE = 0.03, 95% CI [0.77, 0.88]). Strong quality produced a combined weighted mean ES of 0.85 (SE = 0.642, 95% CI [0.74, 0.97]). Moderator analyses revealed that a TE was slightly more effective for youth between the ages of 6 and 15 years than for children between the ages of 3 and 5 years or when used with behavioral goals in comparison to academic goals. However, no difference was found when implemented in general or special education settings or with the inclusion of response cost or verbal cueing.
Journal Article
Preference Assessment for Dimensions of Reinforcement to Inform Token Economies Targeting Problem Behavior
The purpose of the current two-experiment study was to examine the use of a preference assessment for dimensions of reinforcement to inform an effective token economy arrangement. Three participants diagnosed with developmental disabilities who engaged in negatively reinforced problem behavior participated in this study. During Experiment 1, a preference assessment for four dimensions of reinforcement (i.e., quality, immediacy, magnitude, and rate) occurred to inform a more- and less-preferred token economy arrangement. During Experiment 2, a treatment evaluation compared these two token economy arrangements. Results for all three participants showed lower rates of problem behavior under the morepreferred token economy arrangement compared to the less-preferred token economy arrangement. Rates of task completion were higher under the more-preferred token economy arrangement for one of the three participants. Results are discussed in terms of their practical implications for clinicians and educators implementing token economies to manage problem behavior.
Journal Article
The Use of the Token Economy in ESL Classrooms During the COVID-19 Pandemic
The token economy is a pivotal notion in educational settings for maintaining good classroom behaviours among learners. Despite the burgeoning number of studies conducted to determine the efficiency of the token economy, most have been primarily interested in the learners’ perspective. With a gap in the literature to investigate the phenomenon from the educators’ perspectives, the present study surveyed 154 English teachers in Malaysia during the COVID-19 pandemic. The respondents who taught at government schools were involved in examining the token economy as an approach to behavioural management and learning engagement. The data collection was performed through a self-completed questionnaire survey of Google Form via various online platforms. The study showed that Malaysian English teachers from government schools were in complete agreement that the implementation of the token economy in ESL classrooms is effective in eliciting desired behaviours and reducing disruptive behaviours among learners. Social and physical reinforcement were the most effective forms of the token economy in the classroom as opposed to other types of reinforcement. The implications of the study include the possibility of the token economy becoming a catalyst in the educational landscape for changing behaviour and boosting learning motivation, particularly among young learners who are usually emotionally sensitive.
Journal Article
Identifying Community-Based Reinforcers of Adults with Autism and Related Disabilities
A forced-choice preference assessment using pictures and no access upon selection was used to determine preferences for community-based activities with 4 young adults with autism and intellectual disability. High- and low-preference activities were then provided as delayed consequences, using a token economy, for completion of vocational tasks in a concurrent operants paradigm. All participants responded to the contingency associated with earning the high-preference activity and away from the contingency associated with earning the low-preference activity. The results suggest that a pictorial assessment without access is a valid method for identifying community-based activities that will function as reinforcers. This efficient protocol could improve treatment efficacy in applied settings.
Journal Article
“When You First Get There, You Wear Red”: Youth Perceptions of Point and Level Systems in Group Home Care
Child welfare involved youth are frequently referred to group home care. One common intervention utilized in group home care is behavior management systems. This intervention is operationalized as points, token economies, and level systems. Grounded in social learning and behavioral theories, the objective is to reinforce-pro-social behaviors and to provide mild negative consequences for undesirable behaviors. However, little is known about how child-welfare involved youth perceive these kinds of interventions and whether they believe them to be effective. Focus groups were conducted with 40 young adults known to independent living services and formerly in group home placement. The qualitative findings reveal that while youth felt structure was needed, how it was operationalized in group homes was restrictive, non-normative, and non-individualized. Implications for social work practice and further research using an attachment perspective are discussed.
Journal Article
Financial incentives for physical activity in adults: systematic review and meta-analysis
ObjectiveThe use of financial incentives to promote physical activity (PA) has grown in popularity due in part to technological advances that make it easier to track and reward PA. The purpose of this study was to update the evidence on the effects of incentives on PA in adults.Data sourcesMedline, PubMed, Embase, PsychINFO, CCTR, CINAHL and COCH.Eligibility criteriaRandomised controlled trials (RCT) published between 2012 and May 2018 examining the impact of incentives on PA.DesignA simple count of studies with positive and null effects (‘vote counting’) was conducted. Random-effects meta-analyses were also undertaken for studies reporting steps per day for intervention and post-intervention periods.Results23 studies involving 6074 participants were included (64.42% female, mean age = 41.20 years). 20 out of 22 studies reported positive intervention effects and four out of 18 reported post-intervention (after incentives withdrawn) benefits. Among the 12 of 23 studies included in the meta-analysis, incentives were associated with increased mean daily step counts during the intervention period (pooled mean difference (MD), 607.1; 95% CI: 422.1 to 792.1). Among the nine of 12 studies with post-intervention daily step count data incentives were associated with increased mean daily step counts (pooled MD, 513.8; 95% CI:312.7 to 714.9).ConclusionDemonstrating rising interest in financial incentives, 23 RCTs were identified. Modest incentives ($1.40 US/day) increased PA for interventions of short and long durations and after incentives were removed, though post-intervention ‘vote counting’ and pooled results did not align. Nonetheless, and contrary to what has been previously reported, these findings suggest a short-term incentive ‘dose’ may promote sustained PA.
Journal Article
Effects of a Peer-Administered Token Economy on Second Grade Physical Education Students' Overhand Throw Performance
Token economies have been shown useful in a variety of settings to improve physical activity-related behaviors. However, few researchers in empirical research have examined the effects of token reinforcement targeting motor skill performance implemented specifically in physical education with typically developing children. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a token economy on the overhand throw performance of second grade physical education students. An alternating treatments design was used with students participating in overhand throwing sessions that alternated between baseline and token economy phases. Performance scores for each session were inspected for response differentiation between the two phases. In analysis, it was revealed the token economy was effective in all seven participants. Additionally, participants increased the number of overhand components performed correctly during token phases by 10% to 27% per session. A functional relation between token reinforcement and overhand throw performance was evident in most participants. Therefore, it was concluded that token reinforcement can be an effective tool for physical educators.
Journal Article