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Objectives This study aims to assess the effects of rinsing with zinc- and chlorhexidine-containing mouth rinse with or without adjunct tongue scraping on volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs) in breath air, and the microbiota at the dorsum of the tongue. Material and methods A randomized single-masked controlled clinical trial with a cross-over study design over 14 days including 21 subjects was performed. Bacterial samples from the dorsum of the tongue were assayed by checkerboard DNA–DNA hybridization. Results No halitosis (identified by VSC assessments) at day 14 was identified in 12/21 subjects with active rinse alone, in 10/21with adjunct use of tongue scraper, in 1/21 for negative control rinse alone, and in 3/21 in the control and tongue scraping sequence. At day 14, significantly lower counts were identified only in the active rinse sequence ( p  < 0.001) for 15/78 species including , Fusobacterium sp., Porphyromonas gingivalis , Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Staphylococcus aureus , and Tannerella forsythia . A decrease in bacteria from baseline to day 14 was found in successfully treated subjects for 9/74 species including: P. gingivalis , Prevotella melaninogenica , S. aureus , and Treponema denticola . Baseline VSC scores were correlated with several bacterial species. The use of a tongue scraper combined with active rinse did not change the levels of VSC compared to rinsing alone. Conclusions VSC scores were not associated with bacterial counts in samples taken from the dorsum of the tongue. The active rinse alone containing zinc and chlorhexidine had effects on intra-oral halitosis and reduced bacterial counts of species associated with malodor. Tongue scraping provided no beneficial effects on the microbiota studied. Clinical relevance Periodontally healthy subjects with intra-oral halitosis benefit from daily rinsing with zinc- and chlorhexidine-containing mouth rinse.

The microbiota of the human lower intestinal tract helps maintain healthy host physiology, for example through nutrient acquisition and bile acid recycling, but specific positive contributions of the oral microbiota to host health are not well established. Nitric oxide (NO) homeostasis is crucial to mammalian physiology. The recently described entero-salivary nitrate-nitrite-nitric oxide pathway has been shown to provide bioactive NO from dietary nitrate sources. Interestingly, this pathway is dependent upon oral nitrate-reducing bacteria, since humans lack this enzyme activity. This pathway appears to represent a newly recognized symbiosis between oral nitrate-reducing bacteria and their human hosts in which the bacteria provide nitrite and nitric oxide from nitrate reduction. Here we measure the nitrate-reducing capacity of tongue-scraping samples from six healthy human volunteers, and analyze metagenomes of the bacterial communities to identify bacteria contributing to nitrate reduction. We identified 14 candidate species, seven of which were not previously believed to contribute to nitrate reduction. We cultivated isolates of four candidate species in single- and mixed-species biofilms, revealing that they have substantial nitrate- and nitrite-reduction capabilities. Colonization by specific oral bacteria may thus contribute to host NO homeostasis by providing nitrite and nitric oxide. Conversely, the lack of specific nitrate-reducing communities may disrupt the nitrate-nitrite-nitric oxide pathway and lead to a state of NO insufficiency. These findings may also provide mechanistic evidence for the oral systemic link. Our results provide a possible new therapeutic target and paradigm for NO restoration in humans by specific oral bacteria.

To determine the effect of antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) using a red light-emitting diode (LED) on the reduction of halitosis and microbiological levels in the tongue coating immediately after irradiation, 7, 14, and 30 days after treatment. Forty-five young adults diagnosed with halitosis were allocated to three groups: G1, aPDT with 0.005% methylene blue and red LED (660 nm, four irradiation points, 90 s per point, power of 400 mW, 36 J per point, radiant exposure of 95 J/cm2, continuous wave); G2, tongue scraping; and G3, tongue scraping and aPDT. Gas chromatography was performed before and immediately after treatment, as well as at the different follow-up times. Microbiological samples were collected at the same times from the dorsum of the tongue, and bacteria were quantified in the samples using real-time PCRq. The Wilcoxon test was used for the intragroup analyses, and the Kruskal–Wallis test was used for the intergroup analyses. In the intragroup analyses, differences were found before and immediately after treatment in all groups (p < 0.05). The effect was maintained after 7 days only in the tongue scraping group (p < 0.05). In the intergroup analysis, no statistically significant differences were found among the groups (p > 0.05). For the microbiological analyses, no statistically significant differences were found in the groups/bacteria that were analyzed (p > 0.05). aPDT using a red LED and 0.005% methylene blue caused an immediate reduction in halitosis, but the effect was not maintained after 7, 14, or 30 days. No reduction occurred in the number of bacteria investigated or the quantification of universal 16S rRNA. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03656419.

In several primate groups enamel is reduced or absent from the lingual (tongue) side of the mandibular incisor crowns akin to other placental and marsupial mammalian groups such as rodents, lagomorphs and wombats. Here we investigate the presumed adaptation of crowns with unilateral enamel to the incision of tough foods in cercopithecines, an Old World monkey subfamily, using a simulation approach. We developed and validated a finite element model of the lower central incisor of the rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) with labial enamel only to compute three-dimensional displacements and maximum principal stresses on the crown subjected to compressive loads varying in orientation. Moreover, we developed a model of a macaque incisor with enamel present on both labial and lingual aspects, thus resembling the ancestral condition found in the sister taxon, the leaf-eating colobines. The results showed that, concomitant with experimental results, the cercopithecine crown with unilateral enamel bends predominantly towards the inside of the mouth, while displacements decreased when both labial and lingual enamel are present. Importantly, the cercopithecine incisor crown experienced lower maximum principal stress on the lingual side compared to the incisor with enamel on the lingual and labial aspects under non-axial loads directed either towards the inside or outside of the mouth. These findings suggest that cercopithecine mandibular incisors are adapted to a wide range of ingestive behaviours compared to colobines. We conclude that the evolutionary loss of lingual enamel in cercopithecines has conferred a safeguard against crown failure under a loading regime assumed for the ingestion (peeling, scraping) of tough-skinned fruits.

Black hairy tongue (BHT) is a benign condition characterized by a discolored, hairy appearance of the dorsal tongue. The prevalence of BHT is not known because its occurrence is highly variable among different populations and dependent on many factors; BHT is more common in men, elderly patients, smokers, HIV-positive, edentulous and also oncologic patients. The lesion is distributed on the dorsal aspect of the tongue and does not involve the lateral and the tip site of the tongue. The most common discoloration in this condition is black to blackish-brown, but it can present with green or yellow discoloration or can lack pigmentation altogether. This desease is often asyntomatic, but sometimes is associated with alitosis, limphoadenopathy, burning or tickling sensation. Besides poor oral hygiene, many substances and medications could cause, aggravate, or predispose a patient to BHT, for example, smoking tobacco, excess consumption of beverages such as black tea, coffee, alcohol, oxidizing mouthwashes, and also intravenous drug use are linked to an increased prevalence of BHT. This condition is benign, self-limiting, and the diagnosis is based on clinical presentation. First-line treatments include avoiding associated medications, practicing good oral hygiene, discontinuing habits predisposing to BHT, and gentle brushing or scraping of the lingual mucosa. The aim of this work is to report a case of hairy tongue in a 18 years old female patient, with no systemic pathology, undergone to antibiotic therapy, treated through a device for oral hygiene \"Aquolab\" that produce ozonated water. It is a dental water jet that mixes water and ozone, resulting in an anti microbial action on treated surfaces, especially gums. Water and ozone levels are adjustable through 3 ozone concentration programs and 2 for the water dispensing seconds. Two 60-second cycles with program 2 are performed by directing the jet of water-ozone mixture onto the dorsal surface of the tongue for both water and ozone regulation without any final rinse. The same told us the next day a significant improvement in burning sensation and the next one-week control, she returned with almost total remission of the lesion. The use of ozonated water for the treatment of oral infections is successfully documented in the scientific literature against various bacterial and mycotic species without adverse effects. We propose this device in the care of hairy tongue, a disorder that afflicts an important proportion of the general population.