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We improve the taxon sampling for avian phylogeny by analyzing 7 new mitochondrial genomes (a toucan, woodpecker, osprey, forest falcon, American kestrel, heron, and a pelican). This improves inference of the avian tree, and it supports 3 major conclusions. The first is that some birds (including a parrot, a toucan, and an osprey) exhibit a complete duplication of the control region (CR) meaning that there are at least 4 distinct gene orders within birds. However, it appears that there are regions of continued gene conversion between the duplicate CRs, resulting in duplications that can be stable for long evolutionary periods. Because of this stable duplicated state, gene order can eventually either revert to the original order or change to the new gene order. The existence of this stable duplicate state explains how an apparently unlikely event (finding the same novel gene order) can arise multiple times. Although rare genomic changes have theoretical advantages for tree reconstruction, they can be compromised if these apparently rare events have a stable intermediate state. Secondly, the toucan and woodpecker improve the resolution of the 6-way split within Neoaves that has been called an \"explosive radiation.\" An explosive radiation implies that normal microevolutionary events are insufficient to explain the observed macroevolution. By showing the avian tree is, in principle, resolvable, we demonstrate that the radiation of birds is amenable to standard evolutionary analysis. Thirdly, and as expected from theory, additional taxa breaking up long branches stabilize the position of some problematic taxa (like the falcon). In addition, we report that within the birds of prey and allies, we did not find evidence pairing New World vultures with storks or accipitrids (hawks, eagles, and osprey) with Falconids.

An approximately 10-year-old, captive-born female toco toucan (Ramphastos toco) was presented due to an acute onset of depression and apathy. On visual and physical examination, it showed an abnormal posture and dehydration, respectively. Serum biochemistry revealed hyperuricemia (39.4 mg/dL) and elevated glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (GOT; 1050 U/L). Radiographs demonstrated an enlargement of the cardiac silhouette. The bird died 7 days after presentation, despite treatment with enrofloxacin, allopurinol, a preparation of hepatorenal protectors, and complex B vitamins with dextrose. Necropsy revealed severe fibrinohemorrhagic peri carditis with a 15-mm-long and 2.5-mm-diameter, rigid foreign body in the pericardial exudate. Microscopically, this foreign body was of vegetal origin.

Gut microbiota plays an important role in animals and are considered microbial organs. Hornbill and toucan are birds of the same ecotypes with high appreciative value. In this study, we characterized and compared the gut microbiota of toco toucan (Ramphastos toco), great hornbill (Buceros bicornis) and wreathed hornbill (Rhyticeros undulatus) using 16S rRNA high‐throughput sequencing technology, and further discussed the influence of host bird genetics on its gut microbiota. We identified 10,847 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) from the hyper‐variable V4–V5 region, representing 14 phyla that were dominated by the Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Cyanobacteria, Fusobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Bacteroidetes. Alpha diversity indices showed no significant difference among the three species (p > 0.1). However, great hornbill and toco toucan shared a high number of OTUs. Principal component analysis also revealed highly similar gut microbiotas between the two distant species. Therefore, environmental factors might dominate over host genetics in shaping the gut microbiotas of hornbill and toucan. Our study would contribute in elucidating adaptation of the hornbill and toucan to environmental change. We characterized and compared the gut microbiota in toco toucan (Ramphastos toco), great hornbill (Buceros bicornis), and wreathed hornbill (Rhyticeros undulatus) using 16S rRNA high‐throughput sequencing technology, and further discussed the influence of host genetics on bird gut microbiotas.

Predator-prey interactions occur regularly in nature; however, predation events are difficult to observe in the canopy of tropical rain forests. We describe a successful capture of a Chestnut-mandibled Toucan (Ramphastos swainsonii) by a Collared Forest-Falcon (Micrastur semitorquatus) in Carara National Park, Costa Rica. The predator-prey interaction lasted for ~30 min from the moment of the first wounding strike in the canopy to the killing of the toucan on the ground. During the predation process, the falcon engaged in multiple attacks from different directions at the sub-canopy level. We video recorded a total of 323.3 sec tracks during the predation event to produce a detailed description of the behavior of both species. In addition, we analyzed the structure of the call of the toucan while being attacked and compared that with a regular call of another individual recorded at a different time in the same area. The toucan produced a distress call with strong harmonics and a broad-band rattling sound as a threatening call. We comment on the possible function of the calls.

Utilising wildlife as natural resources has a long history and wide appeal for many nations, while seeking international wildlife that is sustainably managed is the primary responsibility of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). However, data-driven trade reviews are required, utilising CITES data to increase our understanding of the trade and facilitate evidence-based conservation planning. This study presents the first trade review for Toucans utilising CITES import reported data. The total number of Toucans exported was over 22,000, which subsequently generated a retail ‘real price’ value of nearly US $72 million. The countries accounting for the majority of Toucan exports were Guyana (39%), Suriname (33%) and Nicaragua (14%), while the main importing country was The Netherlands (nearly 25%). Toucan species traded were Ramphastos vitellinus (accounting for 21.5%), Ramphastos toco (19%) and Ramphastos tucanus (17%), making the top three while trade was recorded in 10 species. However, successfully identifying economic values for 15 species highlights that trade exists within non-CITES listed Toucan species too. Therefore, the levels of trade in non-CITES-listed Toucan species need urgent attention, as do the non-detrimental findings that underpin the CITES quotas set for each species, given the species’ importance ecologically.

Peripheral nerve sheath tumors are a heterogeneous group of neoplasms that comprise neurofibromas, schwannomas, neurilemmomas, and perineuromas. In animals, peripheral nerve sheath neoplasms are most commonly diagnosed in dogs and cattle, followed by horses, goats, and cats, but their occurrence is uncommon in birds. An adult, free-living, male toco (common) toucan (Ramphastos toco) was admitted to the zoo animal clinic with weight loss, dehydration, and presence of a soft nodule adhered to the medial portion of the left pectoral muscle. Clinical, cytologic, and computed tomography scan results were indicative of a neoplasm. The toucan died during surgical resection of the mass. Necropsy, histopathologic, and immunohistochemical findings confirmed the diagnosis of benign peripheral nerve sheath tumor. To our knowledge, benign peripheral nerve sheath tumor has not previously been reported in a toucan or any other species in the order Piciformes.

Motion-activated cameras captured images of 2 Keel-billed Toucans (Ramphastos sulfuratus) on and near the ground in two 900 [m.sup.2] experimental forest restoration plots located in the Los Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve, Veracruz, Mexico, during July 2015. Toucans have been known to forage widely for fruit in fragmented landscapes. Our cameras indicated that they additionally foraged on and near the ground for insects or other animal prey in relatively predator-free forest patches. As key agents of dispersal of large-seeded old-growth trees, toucans and other large frugivores were likely responsible for recruitment of animal-dispersed tree species of mature forest in our experimental plantings, even in stands of wind-dispersed trees or controls where animal-dispersed tree species were not planted. Received 1 March 2017. Accepted 24 January 2018. Key words: avian behavior, foraging, forest restoration, Los Tuxtlas, Neotropical birds. Tomamos imagenes de dos tucanes (Ramphastos sulfuratus) con camaras activadas por movimiento en el suelo y cerca de este en dos parcelas experimentales de 900 [m.sup.2] en la Reserva de la Biosfera Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz, Mexico, durante julio 2015. Se sabe que los tucanes buscan frutos ampliamente en paisajes fragmentados. Nuestras camaras indican que en parches de bosque relativamente libres de depredadores, tambien buscaban insectos u otras presas en y cerca del suelo. Como agentes clave de la dispersion de semillas grandes en bosques de edad avanzada, los tucanes y otros frugivoros grandes probablemente son responsables del reclutamiento de especies arboreas dispersadas por animales propias de bosques maduros en nuestras plantaciones experimentales, incluso en grupos de arboles dispersados por viento o controles en los que no se plantaron especies dispersadas por animales. Palabras clave: aves neotropicales, comportamiento aviar, Forrajeo, Los Tuxtlas, restauracion de selvas.

Under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, the valid form and source of the name for the well-known Curl-crested Aracari should remain Pteroglossus beauharnaesiiWagler, 1832. Although it is an incorrect subsequent spelling, its challenger, Pteroglossus beauharnaisii, is a nomen oblitum. Pteroglossus beauharnaesiiWagler, 1832 has been in universal use since 1900, and it is protected either by Article 23.9 or 33.3.1 of the Code, depending on the interpretation of the way the younger name was introduced.

Predation is the major cause of avian nest failure, and an important source of natural selection on life history traits and reproductive behavior. However, little is known about the identity of nest predators in much of the world, including the Neotropics. To identify some of the nest predators exerting selection pressure on birds of the subtropical Atlantic forest, we present observations of animals depredating bird nests in Argentina and Paraguay. We recorded depredations (destruction or removal of eggs or nestlings) at 33 nests of 25 species of birds, confirming as predators ten species of birds (Squirrel Cuckoo Piaya cayana, White-eared Puffbird Nystalus chacuru, Toco Toucan Ramphastos toco, Red-breasted Toucan Ramphastos dicolorus, Saffron Toucanet Pteroglossus baillonii, Chestnut-eared Aracari Pteroglossus castanotis, Planalto Woodcreeper Dendrocolaptes platyrostris, White-throated Woodcreeper Xiphocolaptes albicollis, Buff-browed Foliage-gleaner Syndactyla rufosuperciliata, and Plush-crested Jay Cyanocorax chrysops) and two species of medium-sized mammals (White-eared Opossum Didelphis albiventris and Crab-eating Fox Cerdocyon thous), and inferring two additional mammal species (Black Capuchin Monkey Sapajus nigritus and Southern Tigrina Leopardus guttulus). Fifty-five percent of these nests were depredated by toucans or aracaris (Ramphastidae), which destroyed eggs and nestlings at cup-, closed- and cavity-nests. Red-breasted Toucans destroyed nests 1.6–22 m high, in habitats ranging from primary forest to a backyard. Mammals and jays depredated nests from ground-level to midstory, whereas woodcreepers and aracaris depredated nests from the midstory to canopy. We did not record snakes at any bird nests, in strong contrast to studies from other Neotropical forests. Further studies should examine trade-offs among nest concealment, physical protection, and parental defense behavior as means of reducing nest predation, and use camera traps to quantify nest predation rates by predator species.