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ObjectivesTo study the frequency and causes of the severe iron deficiency anaemia (AF) (haemoglobin <7 g%) in infants and young children.Material and methodsWe studied the observation sheets of infants and children between 1-3 years hospitalised with AF at the 2nd Paediatric Clinic, EUCH Craiova in the interval 1.01.2011-31.12.2013.ResultsAF was recorded in 678 infants and 784 children, with the age between 1-3 years. Severe forms were present in 14 infants and 28 children, age1-3 years. Mean haemoglobin: infant 5.61 plus or minus 0.79 (4, 8-7) g%; children 1-3 years 5.45 plus or minus 1.2 (3-7) g%. Gender distribution of AF severe forms: infant M/F: 10/4; children 1-3 years: 18/10; the backgrounds Urban/Rural: infants 3/11; children 1-3 years 6/22. Severe AF causes in infants: prematurity in 8 cases, prematurity + twins 2 cases, 3 cases with food causes, cystic fibrosis in 1 case. The causes in children with the age between 1-3 years were: food (flour + excess cow's milk) in 23 cases, food intake deficiency in: congenital heart malformations, childhood chronic encephalopathy, palatoschizis /cleft palate, Toxocara canis and parasitic infestation with uncorrected anaemia in infants born prematurely, for each situation 1 case.ConclusionsSevere forms of AF frequency were 2% in infants with AF and 3.6% in children with the age between1-3 years.Rural origin was over three times higher in both age groups.2/3 of the infants with severe AF were premature/ twin; food mistakes were the AF cause in 82.1% of the children aged 1-3 years.

Background Toxocariasis is a worldwide zoonotic parasitic disease caused by species of Toxocara and Toxascaris , common in dogs and cats. Herein, a meta-analysis was contrived to assess the prevalence of Toxocara / Toxascaris in carnivore and human hosts in different regions of Iran from April 1969 to June 2019. Methods The available online articles of English (PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, and Ovid) and Persian (SID, Iran Medex, Magiran, and Iran Doc) databases and also the articles that presented in held parasitology congresses of Iran were involved. Results The weighted prevalence of Toxocara/Toxascaris in dogs ( Canis familiaris ) and cats ( Felis catus ) was 24.2% (95% CI: 18.0–31.0%) and 32.6% (95% CI: 22.6–43.4%), respectively. Also, pooled prevalence in jackal ( Canis aureus ) and red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) was 23.3% (95% CI: 7.7–43.2%) and 69.4% (95% CI: 60.3–77.8%), correspondingly. Weighted mean prevalence of human cases with overall 28 records was 9.3% (95% CI: 6.3–13.1%). The weighted prevalence of Toxocara canis , Toxocara cati , and Toxascaris leonina was represented as 13.8% (95% CI: 9.8–18.3%), 28.5% (95% CI: 20–37.7%) and 14.3% (95% CI: 8.1–22.0%), respectively. Conclusion Our meta-analysis results illustrate a considerable prevalence rate of Toxocara/Toxascaris , particularly in cats and dogs of northern parts of Iran. The presence of suitable animal hosts, optimum climate and close contact of humans and animals would have been the reason for higher seroprevalence rates of human cases in our region. Given the significance clinical outcomes of human Toxocara/Toxascaris , necessary measures should be taken.

Toxocara species infect a wide range of companion, domestic and wild animals as definitive and paratenic hosts, via multiple routes of transmission, producing long-lived tissue-inhabiting larvae and resistant eggs that can survive in the external environment. Therefore Toxocara and the disease it causes in humans, toxocariasis, represents an ideal aetiological agent for the development of the one health approach. However, despite increasing awareness of the public health significance of toxocariasis, gaps in our understanding of certain key aspects of the parasite's biology and epidemiology remain. These gaps hinder our ability to integrate research effort within the veterinary, medical and environmental disciplines. This review will highlight key deficits in our understanding of nine dimensions of Toxocara epidemiology and discuss a potential scenario to develop a more integrated, one health approach to improve our understanding of the prevention and control of this complex and cryptic zoonosis.

Background Toxocariasis is caused by infection with Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati , common nematodes of canids and felids, respectively. Humans become infected after the accidental ingestion of embryonated eggs of Toxocara from the soil or the consumption of raw and undercooked meat containing Toxocara larvae. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to identify ascarid nematodes isolated from jackals in Guilan and Mazandaran provinces, based on morphological and molecular approaches. Methods This cross-sectional study was conducted on 41 road-killed golden jackals collected from Guilan and Mazandaran provinces in northern Iran. At first, species identification was carried out based on morphological characterization. Genomic DNA was extracted from the isolates of Toxocara collected from jackals. PCR-RFLP of Ribosomal DNA regions (ITS) using Rsa I endonuclease enzyme and PCR-sequencing were carried out to identify Toxocara species. The sequence data were aligned using Bioedit software and compared with published sequences in GenBank using the BLAST system. Phylogenetic analysis was performed using MEGA 5.0 software. Results Eleven out of 41 road-killed golden jackals (26.8%) were infected with Toxocara nematodes. All the isolates were confirmed as T. canis based on morphological and molecular methods. A pairwise comparison of the sequences did not show any differences in nucleotide sequences within T. canis isolates, and the sequences were identical and exhibited 100% homology. Conclusions Considering the almost high prevalence of T. canis in golden jackals and its critical role in human toxocariasis, the identification of parasite species by molecular methods can be used to plan prevention and control programs in human and animal communities. Since, the ITS sequences of T. canis isolated from jackals in Iran were utterly similar to the ITS sequences of T. canis isolated from other hosts from different areas of the world, it is hypothesized that the type of host and geographical region do not affect the genetic diversity of the ITS region sequences of T. canis .

Background Toxocara canis and Toxocara cati are parasitic nematodes that occur worldwide. As embryonated Toxocara spp. eggs in the environment pose a zoonotic risk, especially for children, optimal diagnostic approaches are necessary for effective disease response and management, including surveillance. However, little is known about the performance of different diagnostic protocols for detecting Toxocara spp. in the faeces of cats and dogs, hampering movement towards an optimal diagnostic process. This study aimed to compare detection methods, including a newly developed sequential sieving protocol (SF-SSV) and a high-throughput multiplex qPCR-based method to facilitate epidemiological studies. Methods Species-specific Toxocara spp. egg suspensions and canine and feline faecal samples from the field were used to estimate analytical and diagnostic sensitivity of the protocols. The performance of two automated DNA extraction protocols using enzymatic and mechanical lysis were compared by multiplex qPCR, targeting both T. canis and T. cati -specific genomic sequences. All samples were examined by microscopy-based techniques, the sedimentation flotation technique (SF) and a newly developed SF-SSV for the detection, enrichment and purification of parasite eggs. The costs and processing times necessary for all protocols were estimated and compared for both single samples and sets of 100 samples. Results To detect Toxocara spp. eggs, SF-SSV showed the highest analytical sensitivity and a significantly higher diagnostic sensitivity than the DNA detection methods. Mechanical lysis performed better than enzymatic lysis for automated DNA extraction. In automated DNA extraction, 96-well plates performed better than 24-well plates. DNA detection and microscopy-based parasitological methods showed substantial agreement between the results generated by each method. Microscopy-based techniques required the lowest costs and least hands-on time for a single sample. However, when costs and labour were estimated for a set of 100 samples, the DNA detection protocol using 96-well plates for extraction revealed costs similar to SF-SSV and the fastest processing times. Conclusions SF-SSV was superior in terms of analytical and diagnostic sensitivity for the detection of Toxocara spp. eggs. For larger sets of samples, multiplex qPCR-based DNA detection represents an alternative to microscopy-based methods, based on the possibility of faster sample processing at similar costs to SF-SSV, and the ability to provide species-specific diagnoses. Graphical Abstract

Toxocara canis is a zoonotic parasite of major socioeconomic importance worldwide. In humans, this nematode causes disease (toxocariasis) mainly in the under-privileged communities in developed and developing countries. Although relatively well studied from clinical and epidemiological perspectives, to date, there has been no global investigation of the molecular biology of this parasite. Here we use next-generation sequencing to produce a draft genome and transcriptome of T. canis to support future biological and biotechnological investigations. This genome is 317 Mb in size, has a repeat content of 13.5% and encodes at least 18,596 protein-coding genes. We study transcription in a larval, as well as adult female and male stages, characterize the parasite’s gene-silencing machinery, explore molecules involved in development or host–parasite interactions and predict intervention targets. The draft genome of T. canis should provide a useful resource for future molecular studies of this and other, related parasites. Toxocara canis is a zoonotic parasite of major worldwide socioeconomic importance. Here, the authors sequence the genome and transcriptome of T. canis , and highlight potential mechanisms involved in development and host–parasite interactions that could support the pursuit of new drug interventions.

Human toxocariosis (HT) is a widespread and neglected parasitic disease around the world and it is caused by and , a common nematode found in dogs and cats. Childiren are caught to HT after ingestion of embriyonated spp. eggs via contaminated materials such as soil, hair and etc. The aim of this study is to investigate spp. and other zoonotic parasites in children’s playgrounds in Karaman province of Turkey. In total, 103 samples (68 sand soil, 26 soil and 9 stool) from 20 randomly selected children's playgrounds in May 2018 in Karaman province, were investigated. Samples were examined by flotation in saturated NaCl solution and parasite ova were diagnosed under the light microscope morphologically. Of the 20 screened playgorunds, 11 [55%, confidence interval (CI=33.6-75.2)]and 27 analyzed sample (26.2%, CI=18.4-35.2) were positive one or more parasite species. While spp. eggs were the most common species in total (19.4%, CI=12.6-27.8), taeniid ( spp., spp.) eggs and spp. eggs were found in seven (6.8%, CI=2.97-12.7) and one (0.97%, CI=0.05-4.21) samples respectively. Also, one soil sample was found to be contaminated with both and taeniid eggs. These results demonstrate that children’s playgrounds in Karaman may be a source for HT and other zoonotic infections. We advise to be fenced children’s playgrounds in order to prevent pet animal’s accessibility.

Toxocariasis is an emerging zoonotic disease caused by Toxocara canis and T . cati . Toxocariasis and its etiological agents are of global public health importance, whose burden appears underestimated, especially in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The diversity in the transmission routes of these parasites contributes to disease prevalence and often hinders disease control measures. This study aimed to review the epidemiological distribution of Toxocara infections in SSA region. A systematic review and meta-analysis were performed using PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis). We identified 94 relevant, peer-reviewed articles, out of which, 75 articles were found eligible based on Toxocara infections in dogs, cats and humans. Overall, 27,102 samples were examined for T. canis in dogs, T. cati in cats and Toxocara serology in humans, out of which 6142 were positive for Toxocara infection: 3717 (13.7%) in dogs (faecal, 3487; necropsy, 180; hair, 50); 266 (1%) in cats (faecal, 101; necropsy, 165); and 2159 (8%) in humans (serology). Overall mean prevalences of 19% (95% confidence interval (CI): 14–23%), 9% (95% CI: 0–28%) and 36% (95% CI: 24–49%) were recorded in dogs, cats and humans, respectively. Substantial heterogeneity was observed between studies and subgroups ( I 2 = 99%, P < 0.01). Findings from the review showed that studies on the epidemiology of Toxocara infections in the SSA region are limited. We strongly recommend focused, collaborative and coordinated studies to determine Toxocara spp. prevalence in various hosts, including food animals and the environment, through a ‘One Health’ approach across SSA countries.

To gain further insight on the association between human toxocariasis and epilepsy in light of the new evidence in the last years. A systematic review was conducted without date and language restriction in the following electronic databases: MEDLINE (PubMed), Ingenta Connect, Science Direct (Elsevier), RefDoc, Scopus, HighWire, Scielo and the database of the Institute of Neuroepidemiology and Tropical Neurology of the Limoges University (IENT). Two investigators independently conducted the search up to November 2017. A pooled odds ratio (OR) was estimated using a random effects model. Meta-regression was conducted to investigate potential sources of heterogeneity. Database search produced 204 publications. Eleven case-control studies were included that were carried out in 13 countries worldwide. A total number of 4740 subjects were considered (2159 people with epilepsy and 2581 people without epilepsy). The overall pooled OR was 1.69 (95% CI 1.42-2.01) for the association between epilepsy and Toxocara spp. seropositivity. A positive association was constantly reported in the restricted analysis (WB as confirmatory or diagnostic test, younger population, and population-based studies). Meta-regression showed no statistically significant association between covariates and outcome. The updated meta-analysis provides epidemiological evidence of a positive association between Toxocara seropositivity and epilepsy. New surveys supported the association, mainly population-based studies. On this basis, health strategies to reduce the impact of Toxocara spp are strongly advised. Further research should be performed to understand the physiopathological mechanisms of toxocara-associated epileptogenesis.

Background Despite the public health importance of toxocariasis/toxascariasis, only a few species of these ascaridoid parasites from wild canine and feline carnivores have been studied at the molecular level so far. Poor understanding of diversity, host distribution and the potential (zoonotic) transmission of the ascaridoid species among wild animals negatively affects their surveillance and control in natural settings. In this study, we updated previous knowledge by profiling the genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships of ascaridoid species among eleven wild canine and feline animals on the basis of a combined analysis of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) gene and the partial mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 2 ( cox 2) and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 ( nad 1) genes. Results In total, three genetically distinct ascaridoid lineages were determined to be present among these wild carnivores sampled, including Toxocara canis in Alopex lagopus and Vulpes vulpes , Toxocara cati in Felis chaus , Prionailurus bengalensis and Catopuma temmincki and Toxascaris leonina in Canis lupus , Panthera tigris altaica , Panthera tigris amoyensis , Panthera tigris tigris , Panthera leo and Lynx lynx . Furthermore, it was evident that T. leonina lineage split into three well-supported subclades depending on their host species, i.e. wild felids, dogs and wolves and foxes, based on integrated genetic and phylogenetic evidence, supporting that a complex of T. leonina other than one species infecting these hosts. Conclusions These results provide new molecular insights into classification, phylogenetic relationships and epidemiological importance of ascaridoids from wild canids and felids and also highlight the complex of the taxonomy and genetics of Toxascaris in their wild and domestic carnivorous hosts.