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The primary aim of our feasibility reporting was to define physiological differences in trail running (TR) athletes due to different uphill locomotion patterns, uphill running versus uphill walking. In this context, a feasibility analysis of TR athletes’ cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) data, which were obtained in summer 2020 at the accompanying sports medicine performance center, was performed. Fourteen TR athletes (n = 14, male = 10, female = 4, age: 36.8 ± 8.0 years) were evaluated for specific physiological demands by outdoor CPET during a short uphill TR performance. The obtained data of the participating TR athletes were compared for anthropometric data, CPET parameters, such as V˙Emaximum, V˙O2maximum, maximal breath frequency (BFmax) and peak oxygen pulse as well as energetic demands, i.e., the energy cost of running (Cr). All participating TR athletes showed excellent performance data, whereby across both different uphill locomotion strategies, significant differences were solely revealed for V˙Emaximum (p = 0.033) and time to reach mountain peak (p = 0.008). These results provide new insights and might contribute to a comprehensive understanding of cardiorespiratory consequences to short uphill locomotion strategy in TR athletes and might strengthen further scientific research in this field.

Es objeto de este artículo explicar, desde un punto de vista descriptivo, los inicios y evolución del trail running (carreras de o por montaña) en España con el objetivo de determinar la existencia (o no) del boom del trail running. Se realiza el análisis cuantitativo de las carreras de trail running organizadas en el año 2015 (n=1901) a partir del cual se identifica que: a) la carrera a pie es la tipología de actividad deportiva más utilizada; b) las épocas en que más eventos se organizan son los periodos de primavera y otoño; c) Cataluña es la comunidad autónoma que más carreras organiza; d) los municipios de menos de 5000 habitantes son los que más pruebas acogen; e) atendiendo a la evolución en la creación de nuevas pruebas  se observan tres periodos: 1) del 1940 hasta 1977, con un crecimiento nulo; 2) del 1978 hasta el 2006, con un ligero crecimiento y 3) del 2007 hasta el 2015, con un boom en la creación de nuevas pruebas; y finalmente f) se observa que en la creación de una prueba, mayoritariamente, se inicia con una distancia, posteriormente así como avanza en ediciones, aumenta el número de pruebas para a partir de la cuarta edición volver a una única distancia. Con estos resultados este es el primer estudio que demuestra la existencia del boom del trail running, a la vez que realiza una fotografía de la situación del trail running en España en el 2015 y de cómo ha llegado hasta aquí. Abstract. This article explains the beginnings and evolution of trail running in Spain from a descriptive point of view. The objective is to determinate the existence of the term trail running boom. The study is based on a quantitative analysis of trail running races organized in the year 2015 (n=1901). The results are: a) foot race is the most used type of trail running; b) spring and autumn are the two periods in which more events are organized; c) Catalonia is the autonomous community that more trail running races organizes; d) municipalities of less than 5000 inhabitants organize the highest number of trail running races; e) considering the evolution in the creation of new trail running races, three periods are observed: 1) from 1940 to 1977, with no growth; 2) from 1978 to 2006, with a slow growth and 3) from 2007 to 2015, with a boom in the creation of new races; and finally f) we could observe that the organization of trail running races usually starts with only one distance; successively, in following editions the number of modalities increases, whereas from the fourth edition again it comes back to a single distance. This is the first study that demonstrates the existence of the trail running boom, as well as it explains the situation of trail running in Spain in 2015 and how it has reached its current state.

This study investigated biomechanical assessments in trail running, comparing two wearable devices—Stryd Power Meter and GARMIN[sub.RP]. With the growing popularity of trail running and the complexities of varied terrains, there is a heightened interest in understanding metabolic pathways, biomechanics, and performance factors. The research aimed to assess the inter- and intra-device agreement for biomechanics under ecological conditions, focusing on power, speed, cadence, vertical oscillation, and contact time. The participants engaged in trail running sessions while wearing two Stryd and two Garmin devices. The intra-device reliability demonstrated high consistency for both GARMIN[sub.RP] and Stryd[sup.TM], with strong correlations and minimal variability. However, distinctions emerged in inter-device agreement, particularly in power and contact time uphill, and vertical oscillation downhill, suggesting potential variations between GARMIN[sub.RP] and Stryd[sup.TM] measurements for specific running metrics. The study underscores that caution should be taken in interpreting device data, highlighting the importance of measuring with the same device, considering contextual and individual factors, and acknowledging the limited research under real-world trail conditions. While the small sample size and participant variations were limitations, the strength of this study lies in conducting this investigation under ecological conditions, significantly contributing to the field of biomechanical measurements in trail running.

Validation of heart rate responses in wearable technology devices is generally composed of laboratory-based protocols that are steady state in nature and as a result, high accuracy measures are returned. However, there is a need to understand device validity in applied settings that include varied intensities of exercise. The purpose was to determine concurrent heart rate validity during trail running. Twenty-one healthy participants volunteered (female n = 10, [mean (SD)]: age = 31 [11] years, height = 173.0 [7] cm, mass = 75.6 [13] kg). Participants were outfitted with wearable technology devices (Garmin Fenix 5 wristwatch, Jabra Elite Sport earbuds, Motiv ring, Scosche Rhythm+ forearm band, Suunto Spartan Sport watch with accompanying chest strap) and completed a self-paced 3.22 km trail run while concurrently wearing a criterion heart rate strap (Polar H7 heart rate monitor). The trail runs were out-and-back with the first 1.61 km in an uphill direction, and the 1.61 return being downhill in nature. Validity was determined through three methods: Mean Absolute Percent Error (MAPE), Bland-Altman Limits of Agreement (LOA), and Lin's Concordance Coefficient (r.sub.C). Validity measures overall are as follows: Garmin Fenix 5 (MAPE = 13%, LOA = -32 to 162, r.sub.C = 0.32), Jabra Elite Sport (MAPE = 23%, LOA = -464 to 503, r.sub.C = 0.38), Motiv ring (MAPE = 16%, LOA = -52 to 96, r.sub.C = 0.29), Scosche Rhythm+ (MAPE = 6%, LOA = -114 to 120, r.sub.C = 0.79), Suunto Spartan Sport (MAPE = 2%, LOA = -62 to 61, r.sub.C = 0.96). All photoplethysmography-based (PPG) devices displayed poor heart rate agreement during variable intensity trail running. Until technological advances occur in PPG-based devices allowing for acceptable agreement, heart rate in outdoor environments should be obtained using an ECG-based chest strap that can be connected to a wristwatch or other comparable receiver.

The current evidence suggests that pacing may not be affected by performance level or sex in trail-running races as may occur in road running races. However, the previous studies included races of >100 km. Therefore, we aimed to verify the influence of performance level and sex on pacing in the last four (2017, 2018, 2019, and 2021) editions of a shorter (56.3 km) ultra-trail running race (i.e., Orsières–Champex–Chamonix; OCC®) that maintained the same race profile. The mean finishing time for the 5656 participants was 10 h 20 min 33 s ± 2 h 01 min 19 s. Pacing variability (CV%) was higher in high-level participants, thus showing a greater ability to adapt their pace to the race profile than low-level runners. Males also had a higher pacing variability than females although the effect sizes were small. Based on the current findings, we may recommend for non-elite OCC® participants to adapt their pace to the race profile with a slower pace during uphills and a faster pace during downhills. Further studies including participants’ experience are necessary to confirm the effectiveness of this suggestion in trail-running races of variable distances.

The Xsens Link motion capture suit has become a popular tool in investigating 3D running kinematics based on wearable inertial measurement units outside of the laboratory. In this study, we investigated the reliability of Xsens-based lower extremity joint angles during unconstrained running on stable (asphalt) and unstable (woodchip) surfaces within and between five different testing days in a group of 17 recreational runners (8 female, 9 male). Specifically, we determined the within-day and between-day intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) and minimal detectable changes (MDCs) with respect to discrete ankle, knee, and hip joint angles. When comparing runs within the same day, the investigated Xsens-based joint angles generally showed good to excellent reliability (median ICCs > 0.9). Between-day reliability was generally lower than the within-day estimates: Initial hip, knee, and ankle angles in the sagittal plane showed good reliability (median ICCs > 0.88), while ankle and hip angles in the frontal plane showed only poor to moderate reliability (median ICCs 0.38–0.83). The results were largely unaffected by the surface. In conclusion, within-day adaptations in lower-extremity running kinematics can be captured with the Xsens Link system. Our data on between-day reliability suggest caution when trying to capture longitudinal adaptations, specifically for ankle and hip joint angles in the frontal plane.

This study investigated biomechanical assessments in trail running, comparing two wearable devices—Stryd Power Meter and GARMINRP. With the growing popularity of trail running and the complexities of varied terrains, there is a heightened interest in understanding metabolic pathways, biomechanics, and performance factors. The research aimed to assess the inter- and intra-device agreement for biomechanics under ecological conditions, focusing on power, speed, cadence, vertical oscillation, and contact time. The participants engaged in trail running sessions while wearing two Stryd and two Garmin devices. The intra-device reliability demonstrated high consistency for both GARMINRP and StrydTM, with strong correlations and minimal variability. However, distinctions emerged in inter-device agreement, particularly in power and contact time uphill, and vertical oscillation downhill, suggesting potential variations between GARMINRP and StrydTM measurements for specific running metrics. The study underscores that caution should be taken in interpreting device data, highlighting the importance of measuring with the same device, considering contextual and individual factors, and acknowledging the limited research under real-world trail conditions. While the small sample size and participant variations were limitations, the strength of this study lies in conducting this investigation under ecological conditions, significantly contributing to the field of biomechanical measurements in trail running.

This study aims to segment trail runners employing psychographic segmentation, specifically sport commitment, as an understudied variable in sport tourism. The purpose is to identify specific trail runner profiles. An online survey was made available via Facebook through sponsored advertisements in South Africa. The final sample consisted of N = 412 trail runners. Three distinct segments were identified using cluster analysis: landscape seekers, sport devotees, and eco-group travelers. These segments differed significantly regarding the factors influencing their sport commitment, with cluster membership influenced by demographic characteristics, behavioral intentions, and sought-after event attributes. To foster the expansion of trail running events in South Africa, it is imperative to concentrate efforts on enhancing accessibility through diverse routes across varied terrains, implementing comprehensive training programs catering to runners of all levels, and deploying strategic marketing initiatives to raise awareness and participation.

Determine and compare the epidemiology, clinical characteristics, and injury severity among race entrants training towards different ultra-trail race distances. Retrospective cross-sectional study. The six months training period before the 2022 Mac Ultra races (46 km, 80 km, 161 km and 322 km). Of the 245 race entrants, 162 (66% of Mac ultra-trail runners) consented to analyse their data. Injury rate (injuries per 1000 h of running), point prevalence (% of currently injured participants), injury severity (time loss), and the frequency (n, %) of injuries reported during pre-race medical screening in the six months before the race. Using inferential statistics, we compared the injury rates between the different race distance categories (46 km, 80 km, 161 km, 322 km). All tests were performed at a 5% level of significance. We reported a statistically significantly higher injury rate among 46 km study participants (3.09 injuries per 1000 h) compared to the injury rates reported among 80 km (0.68 injuries per 1000 h; p = 0.001) and 161 km (1.09 injuries per 1000 h; p = 0.028) participants. The lower limb (89%) was the most injured anatomical region, with only 46 km study participants reporting upper limb, trunk, and head injuries (11%). Muscle/tendon was the most reported injured tissue type (56%), with muscle injuries (31%) the most reported pathology type. Shorter distance ultra-trail runners reported the highest injury severity. Ultra-trail runners training towards shorter ultra-trail distance races presented with a higher injury rate, more diverse injury profile, and a higher injury severity. •46 km ultra-trail runners have a higher injury rate compared to 80 km and 161 km ultra-trail runners.•46 km ultra-trail runners present with a more diverse injury profile.•Shorter distance ultra-trail runners have a higher injury severity.

The aim of this study was to analyze the psychological variables of runners of ultra-trail mountain races and their association with athletic performance and success. The sample was made up of 356 mountain runners, 86.7% men and 13.2% women, with a mean age of 42.7 years and 5.7 years of experience. Using pre- and post-race questionnaires, data were collected regarding mental toughness, resilience, and passion. The performance of each runner in the race was also recorded. The results showed very high values in the psychological variables analyzed compared with other sports disciplines. Completion of the race (not withdrawing) and the elite quality of the runners were presented as the most relevant indicators in the processes of resilience, mental toughness, and obsessive passion. Differences were noted between the pre- and post-race results, suggesting that the competition itself is a means of training those psychological factors that are essential to this sports discipline. It can be concluded that psychological factors are decisive to athletic performance and race completion in mountain ultra-marathon races.