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In athletes, spectral analysis of HR variability (HRV) has been shown capable to detect the adaptational changes in sympatho‐vagal control attending physical training. So far, studies investigated autonomic nervous system (ANS) changes occurring with endurance training, whereas adaptations to markedly different exercise modes, for example, strength training, have never been investigated. We assessed the changes in cardiac ANS parameters during long‐term training in weight lifters of the Italian team preparing for the European Championship, where athletes competed for obtaining the pass for Olympic Games. We investigated nine athletes. Subject trained 3 sessions/day, 6 days a week. The intensity of strength exercises varied from 70% to 95% 1 RM. Training load (TL) was calculated as: volume (min) × intensity (%1RM).All ANS parameters were significantly and highly correlated on an individual basis to the dose of exercise with a second‐order regression model (r2 ranged from 0.96 to 0.99; P < 0.001). The low‐frequency (LF) component of HRV and LF/HF ratio showed an initial increase with the progression of TL and then a decrease, resembling a bell‐shaped curve with a minimum at the highest TL. The high‐frequency (HF) component of HRV and R‐R interval showed a reciprocal pattern, with an initial decrease with progression of TL followed by an increase, resembling an U‐shaped curve with a maximum at the highest TL. These adaptations were at the opposite to those previously reported in endurance athletes. These results suggest that in Olympic weight lifters, ANS adaptations to training are dose‐related on individual basis and that ANS adaptations are mainly sport‐specific. So far, studies investigating autonomic nervous system (ANS) changes occurring with strength training have never been performed. We assessed the changes in cardiac ANS parameters, via spectral analysis of heart rate variability, during long‐term training, culminating with European Championship, in elite weight lifters. The results suggest that ANS adaptations to strength training in top‐level weight lift athletes are dose‐related on individual basis, and are substantially different from those observed in endurance‐trained athletes, showing a progressive shift toward a parasympathetic predominance as training load approached the maximum. Hence, ANS adaptations to training in top‐level athletes appear to be mainly sport‐specific and not generalized.

Background Diets containing fats of different proportions and types have been demonstrated to influence metabolism. These fats differ in long chain fatty acids (LCFAs) or medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs) content. In our laboratory using swimming as the training modality, MCFAs increased endurance attributed to increased activities of oxidative enzymes. How it affects whole-body metabolism remains unexplored. The present study investigated the metabolic, biochemical and genetic adaptations with treadmill running as the training modality. Methods C57BL/6N mice were divided into untrained and trained groups and provided with low-fat (10% kcal from soybean oil), coconut oil (10% kcal from soybean oil, 20% kcal from coconut oil) or soybean oil (30% kcal from soybean oil) diet. Training was performed on a treadmill for 30 days. After recovery, whole-body metabolism at rest and during exercise, endurance, substrate metabolism, mitochondrial enzyme activities, and gene expression of training-adaptive genes in the muscle and liver were measured. Results At rest, medium-fat diets decreased respiratory exchange ratio (RER) ( p <  0.05). Training increased RER in all diet groups without affecting oxygen consumption ( p <  0.05). During exercise, diets had no overt effects on metabolism while training decreased oxygen consumption indicating decreased energy expenditure ( p <  0.05). Coconut oil without training improved endurance based on work ( p <  0.05). Training improved all endurance parameters without overt effects of diet ( p <  0.05). Moreover, training increased the activities of mitochondrial enzymes likely related to the increased expression of estrogen related receptor (ERR) α and ERRβ ( p <  0.05). Coconut oil inhibited peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) β/δ activation and glycogen accumulation in the muscle but activated PPARα in the liver in the trained state ( p <  0.05). Substrate utilization data suggested that coconut oil and/or resulting ketone bodies spared glycogen utilization in the trained muscle during exercise thereby preserving endurance. Conclusion Our data demonstrated the various roles of diet and fat types in training adaptation. Diets exerted different roles in PPAR activation and substrate handling in the context of endurance exercise training. However, the role of fat types in training adaptations is limited as training overwhelms and normalizes the effects of diet in the untrained state particularly on endurance performance, mitochondrial biogenesis, and ERR expression.

Chinese coaches were surveyed to examine their opinion on non-physical factors role in training adaptation and performance, results were compared with prior Western data and the influence of cultural reasoning styles on causal prioritisation considered. Cross-sectional survey. A survey was administered to Chinese coaches (n = 106) across a range of sports (e.g. Olympic Weightlifting and racket sports) and competitive levels (club to international). Included were items rating the importance of various non-physical factors alongside physical training components and open-ended questions probing perceived mechanisms. Most coaches (e.g., ≥80%) rated non-physical factors as essential modifiers of training adaptation and performance across all timescales. Quantitative ratings showed a broad range of factors were considered important, with less clustering than observed in a prior Western sample. Qualitative themes indicated that coaches view non-physical factors as modulators that act to amplify or dampen the effects of training, thus shaping ‘how much’ an athlete improves. These findings align with a multicausal perspective and suggest a holistic orientation in causal reasoning. These coaches perceived training adaptation as inherently multifactorial, with non-physical factors functioning as critical modifiers rather than peripheral influences. The broad range of importance ratings suggests cultural context may shape causal prioritisation. Sport science should move beyond linear, physical-centric models and incorporate culturally informed, configurational frameworks that account for the diverse conditions underpinning adaptation. Future cross-cultural and mixed-methods research is needed to test whether cognitive style differences underlie variation in coaching beliefs and to refine training models.

The adult gut microbiota contains trillions of microorganisms of thousands of different species. Only one third of gut microbiota are common to most people; the rest are specific and contribute to enhancing genetic variation. Gut microorganisms significantly affect host nutrition, metabolic function, immune system, and redox levels, and may be modulated by several environmental conditions, including physical activity and exercise. Microbiota also act like an endocrine organ and is sensitive to the homeostatic and physiological changes associated with training; in turn, exercise has been demonstrated to increase microbiota diversity, consequently improving the metabolic profile and immunological responses. On the other side, adaptation to exercise might be influenced by the individual gut microbiota that regulates the energetic balance and participates to the control of inflammatory, redox, and hydration status. Intense endurance exercise causes physiological and biochemical demands, and requires adequate measures to counteract oxidative stress, intestinal permeability, electrolyte imbalance, glycogen depletion, frequent upper respiratory tract infections, systemic inflammation and immune responses. Microbiota could be an important tool to improve overall general health, performance, and energy availability while controlling inflammation and redox levels in endurance athletes. The relationship among gut microbiota, general health, training adaptation and performance, along with a focus on sport supplements which are known to exert some influence on the microbiota, will be discussed.

This study identified key physiological, biomechanical, and strength-related predictors of competitive performance in elite female race walkers and evaluated the effectiveness of classical and machine-learning models for individualized training optimization. Thirty nationally ranked female race walkers (25 ± 3 years) were assessed over four seasons (2021–2024). Laboratory and field tests included ergospirometry (VO2max, VCO2, VE (minute ventilation), respiratory exchange ratio (RER)), blood lactate (LA), heart rate (HR), gait kinematics (step length, speed), and lower-limb strength (1RM, maximal power). Temporal and seasonal dynamics were evaluated using Kruskal–Wallis and g-Fisher tests. Predictive models included multiple regression, polynomial regression, multilayer perceptron (MLP), and radial basis function (RBF) networks, developed with correlation-vector analysis (R0, R1), collinearity diagnostics, and interaction terms. The most influential predictors were HR, step length, VO2max, and 1RM (R0 > 0.70). RBF achieved the best predictive accuracy (R2 = 0.89; RMSE = 0.28), outperforming MLP (R2 = 0.87) and regression baselines (R2 = 0.61–0.81). Significant seasonal variation (p < 0.001) underscored the value of time-dependent modeling. Conclusion: RBF neural networks offer superior performance for predicting race-walking outcomes; HR and step length are key real-time indicators, whereas VO2max and 1RM inform longer-term adaptation.

Weightlifting demands explosive power and neuromuscular coordination in brief, repeated intervals. These physiological demands underscore the critical role of nutrition, not only in optimizing performance during competitions but also in supporting athletes’ rigorous training adaptations and ensuring effective recovery between sessions. As weightlifters strive to enhance their performance, well-structured nutritional strategies are indispensable. In this comprehensive review, we explored how weightlifters can optimize their performance through targeted nutritional strategies, including carbohydrate intake for glycogen replenishment and proteins for muscle growth and recovery. Additionally, the roles of key supplements, such as creatine, beta-alanine, and branch-chained amino acids in enhancing strength, delaying fatigue, and supporting muscle repair were discussed. A comprehensive literature review was conducted using PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science to gather studies on nutritional strategies for weightlifting performance and training adaptation. The review focused on English-language articles relevant to weightlifters, including studies on powerlifting, while excluding those involving non-human subjects. Weightlifting requires explosive power, and proper nutrition is vital for performance and recovery, emphasizing the role of carbohydrate, protein, and fat intake. Nutrient timing and personalized strategies, informed by genetic and metabolomic analyses, enhance recovery and performance, while supplements like creatine, caffeine, and beta-alanine can significantly improve results when used correctly. Sustainable nutritional strategies are essential for enhancing weightlifter performance, emphasizing a balanced approach over extreme diets or excessive supplements. Further research is needed to refine these strategies based on individual athlete characteristics, ensuring consistent top-level performance throughout competitive seasons.

This systematic review synthesizes evidence on biomarker responses to physiological loads in professional male team sport athletes, providing insights into induced fatigue states. Structured searches across major databases yielded 28 studies examining various biomarkers in elite team sport players. Studies evaluated muscle damage markers, anabolic/catabolic hormones reflecting metabolic strain, inflammatory markers indicating immune activity and tissue damage, immunological markers tied to infection risk, and oxidative stress markers showing redox imbalances from excessive physiological load. Responses were examined in official matches and training across competitive seasons. The evidence shows that professional team sports induce significant alterations in all studied biomarkers, reflecting measurable physiological strain, muscle damage, oxidative stress, inflammation, and immunosuppression during intensive exercise. These effects tend to be larger and more prolonged after official matches compared to training. Reported recovery time courses range from 24-h to several days post-exercise. Monitoring biomarkers enables quantifying cumulative fatigue and physiological adaptations to training/competition loads, helping to optimize performance while mitigating injury and overtraining. Key biomarkers include creatine kinase, testosterone, cortisol, testosterone/cortisol ratio, salivary immunoglobulin-A, and markers of inflammation and oxidative stress. Further research should extend biomarker monitoring to cover psychological stress and affective states alongside physiological metrics for deeper insight into athlete wellness and readiness.

The dietary practices of athletes play a crucial role in shaping their body composition, influencing sports performance, training adaptations, and overall health. However, despite the widely acknowledged significance of dietary intake in athletic success, there exists a gap in our understanding of the intricate relationships between nutrition, body composition, and performance. Furthermore, emerging evidence suggests that many athletes fail to adopt optimal nutritional practices, which can impede their potential achievements. In response, this Special Issue seeks to gather research papers that delve into athletes’ dietary practices and their potential impacts on body composition and sports performance. Additionally, studies focusing on interventions aimed at optimizing dietary habits are encouraged. This paper outlines the key aspects and points that will be developed in the ensuing articles of this Special Issue.

Limited research has examined long-term training adaptations in elite Deaf athletes. This three-year longitudinal observational study characterized anthropometric and physical performance changes in the Polish Deaf National Basketball Team preparing for the Deaflympics (2019–2021). Eleven male athletes (age 26.9 ± 6.3 years) underwent annual assessments of body composition and performance, including countermovement jumps (CMJ, ACMJ), spike jump (SPJ), sprint speed (0–5 m, 0–20 m), and estimated VO₂max. A control group of physically inactive Deaf students ( n  = 15; age 21.1 ± 1.6 years) was also evaluated. Friedman ANOVA revealed stable body composition across seasons ( p  > 0.05; W = 0.01–0.22), except for a moderate increase in left-leg fat-free mass ( p  = 0.025; W = 0.33). While jump performance remained unchanged ( p  > 0.05; d = 0.18–0.32), sprint performance declined significantly (0–5 m: χ²(2) = 20.18, p  < 0.001; 0–20 m: χ²(2) = 14.59, p  = 0.001). Compared with inactive peers, players demonstrated superior physical capacity, including higher fat-free mass (d = 2.12), greater jump power (d = 3.46), and faster sprint times (d = − 1.03 to − 1.07), with a mean 2021 VO₂max of 47.3 ± 6.1 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹. In conclusion, these elite athletes maintained morphology and power but showed declining sprint performance, likely due to COVID-19 disruptions. This study provides the first longitudinal evidence of performance trajectories in elite Deaf basketball players, underscoring the need for individualized, acceleration-focused monitoring to sustain long-term neuromuscular performance.

Exercise effectively promotes and preserves cardiorespiratory, neuromuscular, metabolic, and cognitive functions throughout life. The molecular mechanisms underlying the beneficial adaptations to exercise training are, however, still poorly understood. To improve the mechanistic study of specific exercise training adaptations, standardized, physiological, and well‐characterized training interventions are required. Therefore, we performed a comprehensive interrogation of systemic changes and muscle‐specific cellular and molecular adaptations to voluntary low‐resistance wheel running (Run) and progressive high‐resistance wheel running (RR) in young male mice. Following 10 weeks of training, both groups showed similar improvements in body composition and peak oxygen uptake (V̇O2peak), as well as elevated mitochondrial proteins and capillarization markers in the M. plantaris. Run mice clearly outperformed RR mice in a forced treadmill running capacity test, while RR mice displayed increased grip strength as well as superior mass gains in the M. soleus, associated with distinct proteomic changes specifying the two paradigms. Thus, even though both training modalities induce overlapping adaptations, Run interventions preferably improve submaximal running performance, while progressive RR is a valid model to study training‐induced gains in grip strength and plantar flexor hypertrophy. Young mice were either trained with low‐ or high‐resistance wheel running for 10 weeks or kept sedentary for the same period. Both training groups achieved similar improvements in V̇O2peak, but low‐resistance running induced a superior adaptation in running capacity. In contrast, grip strength was only elevated following high‐resistance running. The M. plantaris and M. soleus showed distinct adaptations to both training modalities. The M. plantaris displayed a pronounced faster to slower MyHC‐based fiber type shift in both training groups but did not increase in mass. The M. soleus hypertrophied in response to both high‐ and low‐resistance wheel running. However, the mass gains were more pronounced with higher resistance, which was also the intervention that substantially shifted fiber type distribution in the M. soleus. Tendon‐free muscles were subjected to whole muscle TMT‐LC‐MS/MS, which indicated a similar increase in mitochondrial proteins in the M. plantaris, but no difference in the M. soleus for these peptides. ECM proteins and structural components of the cytoskeleton and sarcomere appeared to be lowered in the M. plantaris by training, while the M. soleus seemed to elevate these proteins in a load‐dependent manner.