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The parasitic helminth Trichinella spiralis, which poses a serious health risk to animals and humans, can be found worldwide. Recent findings indicate that a rare type of gut epithelial cell, tuft cells, can detect the helminth, triggering type 2 immune responses. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain to be fully understood. Here we show that both excretory–secretory products (E–S) and extract of T. spiralis can stimulate the release of the cytokine interleukin 25 (IL-25) from the mouse small intestinal villi and evoke calcium responses from tuft cells in the intestinal organoids, which can be blocked by a bitter-taste receptor inhibitor, allyl isothiocyanate. Heterologously expressed mouse Tas2r bittertaste receptors, the expression of which is augmented during tuftcell hyperplasia, can respond to the E–S and extract as well as to the bitter compound salicin whereas salicin in turn can induce IL-25 release from tuft cells. Furthermore, abolishment of the G-protein γ13 subunit, application of the inhibitors for G-protein αo/i, Gβγ subunits, and phospholipase Cβ2 dramatically reduces the IL-25 release. Finally, tuft cells are found to utilize the inositol triphosphate receptor type 2 (Ip₃r2) to regulate cytosolic calcium and thus Trpm5 activity, while potentiation of Trpm5 by a sweet-tasting compound, stevioside, enhances tuft cell IL-25 release and hyperplasia in vivo. Taken together, T. spiralis infection activates a signaling pathway in intestinal tuft cells similar to that of taste-bud cells, but with some key differences, to initiate type 2 immunity.

Trichinellosis is a parasitic disease in humans caused by nematodes of the genus Trichinella, usually acquired through the consumption of raw or undercooked meat, mainly from pigs or wild animals, containing infective larvae. Although often overlooked, this disease has affected humans for centuries and continues to be a public health concern in many parts of the world, especially where food safety measures are inadequate. In this millennium, significant progress has been made in understanding the disease pathophysiology and host immune response, mainly through experimental studies in rodents, while human pathophysiology and immune response still await elucidation. This review integrates current knowledge on the biology, transmission, and manifestations of trichinellosis, as well as challenges in diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. The parasite's life cycle involves an initial intestinal phase followed by systemic migration of larvae into striated muscles, where long-lasting cysts are established. The clinical presentation varies from mild gastrointestinal discomfort to severe systemic manifestations such as fever, periorbital edema, and muscle pain. In some cases, chronic symptoms, including fatigue and reduced muscle strength, may persist for years. The immune response is characterized by a Th2-skewed profile and prominent eosinophilia. Diagnosis relies on clinical signs and symptoms, epidemiological evidence of a common infection source, serological testing, and parasitological confirmation through detection of larvae in infected meat and identification of the Trichinella species. Preventive strategies include public education, controlled animal farming, and meat inspection. A deeper understanding of host-parasite interactions, chronic disease mechanisms, and species-specific differences remains essential for improving clinical management and guiding public health interventions. A comprehensive literature search was performed in PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and Web of Science to identify publications on Trichinella and trichinellosis from 1990 through August 2025. The search strategy employed keywords such as \"trichinellosis,\" \"Trichinella,\" \"Trichinella life cycle,\" \"trichinellosis pathophysiology,\" \"diagnosis,\" \"epidemiology,\" \"treatment,\" and \"control.\" Only articles published in English were considered. Titles and abstracts were screened for relevance, and full-text articles were assessed to extract information on life cycle, epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, diagnostic approaches, therapeutic options, and prevention strategies. Additional references were identified by cross-checking the bibliographies of the included articles.

The increasing spread of wild pigs across Canada is concerning due to their potential role as reservoirs for zoonotic diseases, including trichinosis and toxoplasmosis. Trichinosis is caused by the parasitic nematode Trichinella spp. and can manifest clinically in humans. Likewise, the intracellular protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii is a significant global foodborne and waterborne parasite responsible for toxoplasmosis. Despite wild pigs being recognized globally as reservoirs for T. gondii and Trichinella spp., the status of wild pigs in Alberta remains undetermined. Wild pig diaphragms were collected as part of provincial control efforts between 2018–2024 from four Alberta counties. Meat juice was analyzed for antibodies against Trichinella spp. and T. gondii using commercial ELISA kits. We found that 27/252 pigs were positive for antibodies against T. gondii and 11/293 positive for antibodies against Trichinella spp., corresponding with the respective true prevalence of 15.3% (95% CrI: 9.6–22.7%) and 3.8% (95% CrI: 1.8–6.5%) based on Bayesian analysis using reported test sensitivity and specificity. We found a difference in true prevalence of antibodies against Trichinella spp. between counties, and the prevalence of antibodies against Trichinella spp. and T. gondii was significantly higher in solitary wild pigs, suggesting social context of the individual is an important determinant of infection risk. These findings suggest that Alberta wild pigs function as Trichinella spp. and T. gondii reservoirs, underscoring the need for a One Health approach for managing Alberta’s invasive wild pigs.

One of the most significant lactic acid bacteria genera is Lactobacillus , which is known to generate compounds such as bacteriocins that can stop the growth of harmful bacteria. The current study investigated the protective and therapeutic effects of two novel probiotic strains, Lactobacillus brevis PQ214320, and Bacillus subtilis PQ198038, on parasitological, histopathological, and immunological responses in mice infected with Trichinella spiralis . A total of 120 mice were divided into six groups, including a positive control group (C) which was infected with Trichinella infection and not treated, mice treated orally with albendazole (ALB) at a dose of 5 mg/kg bw for 3 days after infection, and mice treated with probiotics (10 9 Colony-Forming Unit (CFU)/mL/animal, in 100 µL of Ringer’s solution) either pre- and post-infection with L. brevis PQ214320 (LP) or B. subtilis PQ198038 (BSP), or only post-infection with L. brevis PQ214320 (L) and B. subtilis PQ198038 (BS). Infection was induced by oral inoculation of 400 T. spiralis larvae. Parasite burden and, histopathological, and immune responses were assessed at 5 and 19 days post-infection. The results showed that the LP group had significantly reduced adult worm and muscle larval counts compared with the positive control group. In contrast, BSP reduced the parasite burden, but to a lesser extent. The immune response was characterized by elevated levels of IL 12 and IFN-γ in the LP group at 5 days -post-infection (dpi), indicating a strong Th1 response, which declined but remained significantly higher than in the control infected group at 19 dpi. Serum IgG responses were higher in the LP group at 19 dpi, suggesting that a more robust adaptive immune response was triggered by L. brevis . Pre- and post-treatment with B. subtilis PQ198038 and L. brevis PQ214320 significantly improved the histopathological abnormalities and collagen deposition in the small intestinal and diaphragm muscular tissues caused Trichinella infection and restored claudin 1 content in the same tissues. These findings suggest that L. brevis PQ214320 offers a stronger protective effect against T. spiralis infection, potentially through enhanced immune modulation and parasite reduction, whereas B. subtilis PQ198038 provides beneficial but less potent responses. This study highlights the potential of novel probiotics strains as adjunct protective agents and therapies against T. spiralis infection.

Trichinellosis is a serious zoonositc parasitosis worldwide. Because its clinical manifestations aren't specific, the diagnosis of trichinellosis is not easy to be made. Trichinella spiralis muscle larva (ML) excretory-secretory (ES) antigens are the most widely applied diagnostic antigens for human trichinellosis, but the major drawback of the ES antigens for assaying anti-Trichinella antibodies is the false negative in the early Trichinella infection period. The aim of this study was to characterize the T. spiralis putative serine protease (TsSP) and to investigate its potential use for diagnosis of trichinellosis. The full-length TsSP sequence was cloned and expressed, and recombinant TsSP (rTsSP) was purified by Ni-NTA-Sefinose Column. On Western blotting analysis the rTsSP was recognized by T. spiralis-infected mouse serum, and the natural TsSP was identified in T. spiralis ML crude and ES antigens by using anti-rTsSP serum. Expression of TsSP was detected at various T. spiralis developmental stages (newborn larvae, muscle larvae, intestinal infective larvae and adult worms). Immunolocalization identified the TsSP principally in cuticles and stichosomes of the nematode. The sensitivity of rTsSP-ELISA and ES-ELISA was 98.11% (52/53) and 88.68% (47/53) respectively (P > 0.05) when the sera from trichinellosis patients were examined. However, while twenty-one serum samples of trichinellosis patients' sera at 19 days post-infection (dpi) were tested, the sensitivity (95.24%) of rTsSP-ELISA was distinctly higher than 71.43% of ES-ELISA (P < 0.05). The specificity (99.53%) of rTsSP-ELISA was remarkably higher than 91.98% of ES-ELISA (P < 0.01). Only one out of 20 serum samples of cysticercosis patients cross-reacted with the rTsSP. Specific anti-Trichinella IgG in infected mice was first detected by rTsSP-ELISA as soon as 7 dpi and antibody positive rate reached 100% on 10 dpi, whereas the ES-ELISA did not permit detection of 100% of infected mice before 16 dpi. The rTsSP is a potential early diagnostic antigen for human trichinellosis.

Natural infection by Trichinella sp. has been reported in humans and more than 150 species of animals, especially carnivorous and omnivorous mammals. Although the presence of Trichinella sp. infection in wild boars ( Sus scrofa ) has been documented worldwide, limited information is known about Trichinella circulation in farmed wild boars in China. This study intends to investigate the prevalence of Trichinella sp. in farmed wild boars in China. Seven hundred and sixty-one (761) muscle samples from farmed wild boars were collected in Jilin Province of China from 2017 to 2020. The diaphragm muscles were examined by artificial digestion method. The overall prevalence of Trichinella in farmed wild boars was 0.53% [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.51–0.55]. The average parasite loading was 0.076 ± 0.025 larvae per gram (lpg), and the highest burden was 0.21 lpg in a wild boar from Fusong city. Trichinella spiralis was the only species identified by multiplex polymerase chain reaction. The 5S rDNA inter-genic spacer region of Trichinella was amplified and sequenced. The results showed that the obtained sequence (GenBank accession number: OQ725583) shared 100% identity with the T. spiralis HLJ isolate (GenBank accession number: MH289505). Since the consumption of farmed wild boars is expected to increase in the future, these findings highlight the significance of developing exclusive guidelines for the processing of slaughtered farmed wild boar meat in China.

Trichinellosis, a significant parasitic zoonotic disease, poses a risk to public health as well as economic implications for the safety of animal feed. Consumption of raw or undercooked meat containing Trichinella larvae can lead to trichinellosis infection. Many molecular diagnostic methods have been developed to identify Trichinella spp. at muscle or intestine stages. However, no molecular diagnostic technique is currently advised for routine testing on Trichinella infection in food animals, particularly at the early stage of infection. Here, the authors review the development of molecular diagnostic techniques of Trichinella spp., such as PCR, RT-PCR, LAMP, RPA and other methods to detect Trichinella DNA. Recently, the Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats and CRISPR-associated proteins (CRISPR-Cas) technology holds great promise for diagnostic testing by providing rapid, sensitive and specific methods for detection. Diagnosis of Trichinella spp. based on CRISPR-Cas system may be a promising method meeting the needs of individual testing.

Trichinellosis is a meat-borne zoonosis of ubiquitous distribution. The severity is variable, and fatalities may occur. Immune-mediated inflammation plays an important role in the pathogenesis of the disease. Thus, safe and effective compounds with anti-inflammatory properties are needed. Our study was designed to evaluate the effects of fluvoxamine as an adjuvant to albendazole during the intestinal and migratory phases of trichinellosis. Therefore, Trichinella spiralis -infected mice were treated with either fluvoxamine, albendazole, or a combination of both drugs. Notably, the parasite burden was reduced in the intestines and muscles of fluvoxamine-treated mice compared to the infected control, denoting a detrimental effect of the drug against Trichinella spiralis . Moreover, in comparison with the infected control, there was a marked improvement in intestinal and muscle inflammation with the treatment, evidenced by the reduction in COX-2 and TNF-α and the decrement of inflammatory infiltrates in tissues. The expression of iNOS was also reduced in the muscles. Treatment with fluvoxamine alleviated the oxidative stress in the intestines and muscles with a reduction in malondialdehyde and H 2 O 2 and an increase in reduced glutathione levels. Finally, fluvoxamine moderated the immune response, as evidenced by the downregulation of the levels of IL-4 and IFN-γ and the increase of those of IL-10 in tissues. Characteristically, all these beneficial effects were maximal in mice receiving the combined treatment. In conclusion, fluvoxamine administration during the early phase of trichinellosis exhibited immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory activities that potentiated the efficacy of albendazole. Therefore, fluvoxamine could be considered a useful adjuvant treatment in trichinellosis.

Trichinellosis is a ubiquitous parasitic infection caused by a zoonotic nematode known as Trichinella spiralis ( T. spiralis ). It starts with the adult worm in the intestinal phase and ends up with the larva reaching the muscles. The disease generally manifests with acute gastroenteritis; however, it may regrettably lead to life-threatening myositis, myocarditis and seizures. The commercially existing chemotherapeutic regimens have numerous drawbacks including severe adverse effects, high resistance rate, poor bioavailability and low efficiency towards the muscular stage. Consequently, the current study targeted the evaluation of nitazoxanide-loaded zinc oxide nanoparticles (NTZ-loaded ZnO NPs) used for the first time in the treatment of both the intestinal and muscular phases of trichinellosis in mice. Swiss Albino mice were orally infected by 250 T. spiralis larvae. The experimental animals were treated with the gold standard albendazole, NTZ, ZnO NPs as well as NTZ-loaded ZnO NPs. Parasitological, biochemical (creatine kinase, alanine transaminase, aspartate transaminase, alkaline phosphatase, malondialdehyde and nitric oxide), immunological (interleukins 2 and 4) and histopathological assessments were conducted. The parasitological results denoted that the mice treated with NTZ-loaded ZnO NPs revealed the uppermost significant drug efficacy (>97%) in both the intestinal and muscular phases indicating efficacious tissue penetration. Additionally, this group revealed the most profound amelioration of the biochemical and immunological markers as well as restoration of the histopathological picture. Conclusively, the present work implied a bird’s eye view on the promising effectiveness of NTZ-loaded ZnO NPs in the treatment of murine trichinellosis relying on the anti-parasitic safe nature of the formulation.

Trichinellosis is a significant zoonotic disease worldwide, with pigs as a primary reservoir host of human infection. Backyard pigs are particularly at risk due to their exposure to muscle tissue containing Trichinella larvae from synanthropic micromammals or home slaughter waste. In Chile, veterinary inspections of domestically slaughtered pigs are mainly conducted in veterinary clinics using muscle samples provided by farmers or consumers. While positive cases must be reported to the authorities, negative cases are not, creating a gap in official data on Trichinella prevalence. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of Trichinella sp. in backyard and intensively raised pigs in south-central Chile. Records of 2,608 backyard pigs were obtained from various veterinary clinics in the La Araucanía and Ñuble regions, with a few records from the El Maule and Biobío regions, encompassing a total of 33 communes. The overall prevalence was found to be 0.9% (95% confidence interval: 0.59-1.37). According to the available information, records of more than 50,000 pigs slaughtered in abattoirs per year corresponded to negative results after examination. Previous reports suggest that eradication is challenging; however, the decreasing incidence rate of human infection indicates the possibility of improving control measures for this zoonosis.