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There has been increasing ambiguity and debate about the meaning and applicability of the terms codeswitching and translanguaging in English language classrooms. To address this issue, this article first offers a historical overview of the literature on codeswitching and translanguaging. This overview serves as the basis for an updated framework that highlights necessary areas of shift in conceptualization from codeswitching to translanguaging, and dimensions of codeswitching research that can still be integrated into a translanguaging lens. This framework is illuminated through an autobiographical narrative inquiry analysis of a teacher educator and a student-researcher at an English-medium university in Kazakhstan, a country that is officially bilingual and developing policies and practices to promote trilingualism. The article reinforces the argument that teachers, teacher educators, and ESOL researchers need to shift from a separate (monoglossic) view of languaging practices to a holistic (heteroglossic) view. Research on teachers’ beliefs and language practices need to be reviewed critically to identify whether they take a monoglossic or heteroglossic view of language practices. The preponderance of spontaneous rather than strategic pedagogical use of translanguaging suggests that teachers and teacher educators in Englishlanguage classrooms need to be explicitly taught ways to incorporate heteroglossic ideologies and intentional translanguaging pedagogies into their teaching practice.

Research has established cognate facilitation effects as a robust finding in bilingual adults and children. Recent studies suggest that cognate facilitation also occurs in highly proficient trilingual adults and can even accumulate across languages. The evidence for multilingual children is scarce and inconclusive. This study examines whether and in which direction cognate effects arise in 35 ten-year-old unbalanced trilingual children, who, in addition to their L1 Italian, acquired L2 German and L3 English in a three-way immersion class in the multilingual region of South Tyrol in Italy. We manipulated cognate status, comparing naming accuracy and latencies in both the L1 and the L3 across double, triple, and non-cognates. The results reveal cognate facilitation effects in naming accuracy, but not in naming speed, for all cognate conditions relative to non-cognates. Furthermore, cognate facilitation was restricted to the L3, replicating previously attested asymmetric effects in unbalanced speakers. In sum, the results indicate that cognate facilitation may boost lexical learning in unbalanced trilingual children who acquire the L2 and the L3 in mainly instructed settings. We discuss these findings in relation to the potential role of language proximity, the L2 status factor, and implications for lexical learning in diverse multilingual environments.

This article elucidates the Typological Primacy Model (TPM; Rothman, 2010, 2011, 2013) for the initial stages of adult third language (L3) morphosyntactic transfer, addressing questions that stem from the model and its application. The TPM maintains that structural proximity between the L3 and the L1 and/or the L2 determines L3 transfer. In addition to demonstrating empirical support for the TPM, this article articulates a proposal for how the mind unconsciously determines typological (structural) proximity based on linguistic cues from the L3 input stream used by the parser early on to determine holistic transfer of one previous (the L1 or the L2) system. This articulated version of the TPM is motivated by argumentation appealing to cognitive and linguistic factors. Finally, in line with the general tenets of the TPM, I ponder if and why L3 transfer might obtain differently depending on the type of bilingual (e.g. early vs. late) and proficiency level of bilingualism involved in the L3 process.

The purpose of this article is to review modem research in the field of multilingualism in terms of the main problems and issues related to the definition of the concept of multi-lingualism, and its main types and elements. The article discusses various forms of the existence of multilingualism and discusses the problems associated with various scientific ideas about multilingualism, a multilingual individual, and its main characteristics. An analysis of the language situation in the Republic of Kazakhstan is also carried out based on the results of the population census 2021, features of the functioning, and interaction of languages in the multinational Republic of Kazakhstan. The article contains quantitative data related to the composition of the population; the level of proficiency in the Kazakh, Russian, and English languages as well as the language of their ethnic group; the level of trilingual proficiency of the population (Kazakh, Russian, and English); the specifics of the development of the state language on the Internet, etc.

Proficient bilinguals demonstrate slower lexical retrieval than comparable monolinguals. The present study tested predictions from two main accounts of this effect, the frequency-lag and competition hypotheses. Both make the same prediction for bilinguals but differ for trilinguals and for age differences. 200 younger or older adults who were monolingual, bilingual, or trilingual performed a picture naming task in English that included high and low frequency words. Naming times were faster for high than for low frequency words and, in line with frequency-lag, group differences were larger for low than high frequency items. However, on all other measures, bilinguals and trilinguals performed equivalently, and lexical retrieval differences between language groups did not attenuate with age, consistent with the competition view.

Previous research has demonstrated cognate translation priming effects in masked priming lexical decision tasks (LDTs) even when a bilingual’s two languages have different scripts. Because those effect sizes are normally larger than with noncognates, the effects have been partially attributed to the impact of prime-target phonological similarity. The present research extended that work by examining priming effects when using triple different-script cognates, i.e., 咖啡 /ka1 feɪ1/-coffee-コーヒー/KoRhiR/. Specifically, masked cognate priming effects were examined in six different priming directions (i.e., L1↔L2, L1↔L3, and L2↔L3) for Chinese-English-Japanese trilinguals using LDTs. Significant priming effects were observed only when the primes were from the stronger language. This asymmetric pattern suggests that the phonological similarity of cognate primes only facilitates the processing of different-script triple cognates to the extent that the processing of the prime is robust enough to make phonology available before target processing is finished.

Subcortical structures implicated in language control and processing adapt structurally with increasing language experience. However, the adaptation patterns across different subcortical structures remain unclear. Previous findings from bilinguals and multilinguals reveal renormalisation patterns, lending support to the Dynamic Restructuring Model (Pliatsikas, 2020). These patterns are composed of increasing volumes during the initial stages of language learning, and subsequent reductions as experience increases. T1-weighted images from 14 English monolinguals, 14 bilinguals, 14 trilinguals, and 14 quadrilinguals were obtained. The volumes of five subcortical regions implicated in language control and processing were compared amongst the groups. The findings showed group differences for every structure – caudate nucleus, nucleus accumbens, putamen, globus pallidus and thalamus. Complex patterns were unveiled for each structure, suggesting expansions and renormalisations that differ in trajectory for each group. These findings highlight the dynamic progression of subcortical adaptations, and support the notion of structural renormalisation as language experience grows.

Features and structures of mental lexicon representation are fundamental in psycholinguistics. However, previous investigations into third language acquisition have varied widely in their results and have seldom involved Mandarin as the L3 of participants. In addition, explorations into how mental lexicon representation develops are far from sufficient. In light of the above, this study investigates 72 Dutch-English-Mandarin trilinguals with beginner and advanced Mandarin levels and combines questionnaires, interviews, and priming experiments to explore the dynamic and static features of L3 lexical representations. Results suggest that lexical representations of their three languages are separate to some extent. Links among the three lexical stores seem to exist, with differing strengths. The link between L2 (the instructional language) and L3 may possibly be slightly stronger than that between L1 and L3 for participants of both Mandarin levels. As trilinguals improve their L3 level, the L1-L3 link strengthens, and the asymmetry may gradually diminish.

The objective of this study was to identify, describe and classify errors in the Russian and English speech of the native Kazakh speakers working in the oil industry as well as to give a possible explanation of the reasons for their occurrence. The cross-linguistic interference characteristics of the Kazakhs’ speech were investigated with the involvement of 30 Kazakh oil workers. Based on the contrastive linguistic analysis of the Kazakh, Russian and English languages, typical errors in the oil workers’ speech were established. After gathering the data, the numbers and percentages were employed. The data was then grouped and categorized as per the problems of the study, the characteristics of the items, and the objectives before analyzing it on the basis of frequency of responses. The study has shown that in the speech of oil workers, there were interferences like under-differentiation, over-differentiation, reinterpretation, substitution. These interferences in the speech of trilingual (represented phonetically, lexically, and grammatically) were more complex than in bilingualism. Kazakhs’ Russian speech was also found as close as possible to the norms of the Russian language, and with trilingualism. There was a two-component unidirectional influence seen on the acquisition of a third language (English). The practical significance of the research lies in the possibility of applying these results in order to draw up a methodological and practical basis for teaching English, taking into account the peculiarities of the differences in language systems.

The present paper discusses the scientific discourse and standards for presenting and foregrounding of the new scientific result in English-language international communication. A special perspective has been set in connection with the current situation in Kazakhstan, where at the state level a gradual transition to trilingualism and thus mastery of the Kazakh, Russian, and English languages was initiated. The transition to trilingualism is most noticeably carried out in the academic sphere and scholarly communication. In this framework, the focus is on mastering the norms of verbalizing a scientific result and producing a publication according to the sociocultural norms and patterns of English-based communication. The paper discusses cultural and linguistic characteristics of scientific publications of Kazakhstani authors that reflect the existing academic traditions for the presentation of scientific results. The analysis is based on research papers in the field of humanities and natural sciences in 2015–2020 published in Russian and Kazakh languages by Kazakhstani authors.