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Recent studies have greatly furthered our understanding of the Southern Bantu languages, but questions about the internal relationships of the Southern Bantu language subgroups and the validity of the clade as a whole still remain. This study attempts to reconstruct the consonant inventory of one proposed genetic clade, that of Tsonga-Copi (S50–S60). Using published dictionaries and reference works for each language of the subgrouping, a corpus of cognate vocabulary was assembled. Each term was then matched, where possible, to a reconstruction in the Bantu Lexical Reconstructions 3 (BLR3) database. Sound correspondences were identified and used to reconstruct the consonant inventory of Proto-Tsonga-Copi. In addition to the discovery of several typologically unusual sound changes, the results of this study also lend support to existing and developing hypotheses about both the internal relationships of Southern Bantu clades, as well as the nature of language contact in (pre)historic Southern Africa, particularly the influence of Khoisan and other Bantu languages.

This paper explores the prosodic patterns of complex DP structures in Xitsonga by looking at penultimate lengthening in DPs with marked and unmarked word orders of different types. We discuss the underlying syntactic structures and prosodic realizations of Xitsonga DPs. We are particularly interested in the way in which recursion applies in the Xitsonga DP, where it surfaces in DPs with multiple modifiers of the same or different categories that appear in fronted (i.e., pre-nominal) positions. We propose that in Xitsonga nominal constituents move to a left-periphery-like position within the DP domain and that this position matches to a focus-marked phonological phrase. This type of phonological phrase is forced to remain in the phonology even if the one-word phrase violates the Binarity constraint. We argue that the penultimate lengthening effects found in Xitsonga with the reordering of DP internal elements are best analyzed as showing sensitivity to this focus-marked phonological phrase.

Winterveldt, a township in Pretoria, has residents who speak a variety of of South African indigenous languages, including Setswana, Sepedi/Sesotho sa Leboa, Sesotho, Nguni (isiZulu, isiNdebele, isiXhosa), Xitsonga, English, Afrikaans, and Tshivenda. With so many languages in township like this, it is not easy for someone to use one standard language. They use urban contact varieties (UCVs) of languages such as Sepitori and Tsotsitaal to communicate, which helps them bridge the communication gap in society.The aim of the study is to describe the type and the extent of interference of UCVs in speaking Setswana of Grade 10 learners and how to improve the oral performance of Setswana Home Language (HL) learners. The study was conducted at two high schools where 34 participants were selected from Grade 10. The study employed a qualitative method. In this regard, two focus groups consisting of ten learners each from each school were interviewed. Similarly, class observations (learners presenting and when teachers were conducting the lesson) were also used to collect the data. The aim of the study to use a qualitative approach was to expand and strengthen the data that the researcher needed to collect.This article examines the possible interference of urban contact varieties (UCVs) on Grade 10 learners at the two selected high schools in Winterveldt concerning speaking and writing Setswana. As a result, many learners tend to perform poorly in Setswana Home Language (HL) and fail when they do not attain the required marks in their exams, mainly because they fail their home language.

Research on Xitsonga compounding examines the role of nominal prefixes and headedness (Mlambo & Matfunjwa 2025), while the analysis of Northern Sotho plant names uncovers word formation strategies that link language to ethnobotanical knowledge (Tembane 2025). Research on the reading practices of first-year students reveals a gap between prescribed materials and a wider culture of reading, raising urgent pedagogical concerns (Cekiso, Boakye & Olifant 2025). v46i1. 2130 Ntshangase, X. P., 2025, ‘Renaming as representation of community onomastic interests: A case study of Alfred Duma Municipality’, Literator 46(1), a2092. https://doi.

This study investigates the development of the lateral fricatives and affricates, to which we jointly refer as ‘lateral obstruents’, in Nguni (S40) languages of Southern Africa. These lateral obstruents, which include /ɬ, ⁿɬ, ɮ, ⁿɮ, k͡ʟ̝̊/, are rare in the Bantu language family, and are not reconstructed for Proto-Bantu. Lateral obstruents are also rare cross-linguistically. They do occur, however, in four sub-branches of Southern Bantu: Shona, Sotho-Tswana, Nguni, and Tsonga. In this paper, we study how Southern Bantu could have acquired such a large inventory of cross-linguistically rare phonemes by investigating their development in Nguni languages, a large but closely related cluster of languages in which lateral obstruents are very frequent. We analyze published data from nine Nguni languages, including languages for which the only available descriptions are dated or of limited scope, in which case we carefully assess the data and their analysis. On the basis of this large database, we show which lateral obstruents are used in Nguni, and the vocabulary in which they occur. Applying the Comparative Method, we show that alveolar lateral obstruents can be reconstructed to Proto-Nguni, where they are the regular reflex of Proto-Bantu palatals *c and *j. The velar lateral affricate, in contrast, cannot be reconstructed to Proto-Nguni, and finds its origin in loanwords, for example, from Khoe languages, where it is used as a click replacement strategy. As a result, we conclude that both inheritance and contact played a role in the development of lateral obstruents in Nguni, likely combined in the case of alveolar lateral obstruents. In order to better understand the contact history, we evaluate existing hypothesized contact scenarios to account for the presence of lateral obstruents in Southern Bantu or Nguni. Given that alveolar lateral obstruents result from a regular sound change, contact does not seem to be as prominent in the development of lateral obstruents as has been proposed before in the literature. This study lays the groundwork for future research into lateral obstruents in Southern Bantu.

This ethnographic study explores forms of mutuality and conviviality between Shona migrants from Zimbabwe and Tsonga-speaking South Africans living in Giyani, South Africa. To analyse these forms of mutuality, we draw on Southern African concepts rather than more conventional development or migration theory. We explore ways in which the Shona concept of hushamwari (translated as “friendship”) and the commensurate xiTsonga category of kuhanyisana (“to help each other to live”) allow for conviviality. Employing the concept of hushamwari enables us to move beyond binaries of kinship versus friendship relations and examine the ways in which people create reciprocal friendships that are a little “like kin.” We argue that the cross-cutting forms of collective personhood that underlie both Shona and Tsonga ways of being make it possible to form social bonds across national lines, such that mutuality can be made between people even where the wider social context remains antagonistic to “foreigners.” Diese ethnografische Studie untersucht Formen des Miteinanders und der Geselligkeit zwischen Shona-Migranten aus Simbabwe und Tsonga-sprechenden Südafrikanern in Giyani, Südafrika. Um diese Formen des Miteinanders zu analysieren, stützen wir uns auf südafrikanische Konzepte anstatt dieses anhand konventioneller Entwicklungs-oder Migrationstheorien zu erklären. Wir untersuchen, wie das Shona-Konzept des hushamwari (übersetzt mit „Freundschaft“) und die entsprechende xiTsonga-Kategorie des kuhanyisana („einander helfen zu leben“) Geselligkeit ermöglichen. Die Anwendung des Konzepts von hushamwari ermöglicht es uns, über binäre Konzepte von Verwandtschaft und Freundschaft hinaus zu untersuchen, wie Menschen wechselseitige Freundschaften schließen, die Verwandtschaftsbeziehungen ähneln. Wir argumentieren, dass die übergreifenden Formen kollektiven Menschseins, die sowohl Shona als auch Tsonga zugrunde liegen, es ihnen ermöglichen, soziale Bindungen über nationale Grenzen hinweg einzugehen. So kann ein Miteinander zwischen Menschen hergestellt werden, selbst wenn der breitere soziale Kontext „Ausländern“ feindlich gegenübersteht.

This literature-based study, titled “Sirha ra Wansati Rile Vukatini,” a Xitsonga word meaning “the strength or endurance of a woman lies in her marriage,” examines the contemporary variables influencing Tsonga women’s choices to persist in unsatisfactory marriages. This study examines the socio-cultural and economic background of Munghonghoma Village within the Greater Giyani Municipality, Mopani District, employing an exploratory qualitative methodology based on current literature regarding gender, culture, and marital dynamics among Tsonga women. Literature review findings indicate that Tsonga women frequently endure unsatisfactory marriages due to economic reliance, entrenched cultural norms, and apprehension regarding the social shame linked to divorce or separation. Emotional bonds with their spouses and apprehension for their children's welfare also influence their choices to remain. Literature suggests that several Tsonga women endure diverse forms of physical, mental, and financial abuse, which compromise their entire well-being. The study suggests that ingrained patriarchal practices, gender inequity, and restricted economic empowerment persist in perpetuating women's vulnerability inside marriage. It advises that governmental entities, religious organisations, and community stakeholders establish initiatives that foster women's empowerment, economic autonomy, and awareness of their rights to mitigate the normalisation of abuse condoned by the cultural ideal of “Sirha ra Wansati Rile Vukatini.”.

Kinship terminologies, which vary across cultures and languages, present challenges for lexicographers in creating bilingual dictionaries. Effective bilingual dictionaries must accurately and comprehensively reflect kinship terms and their equivalents. This study explores the lexicographic treatment of Xitsonga kinship terms in bilingual dictionaries, focusing on their definition, translation, and cross-referencing in English-Xitsonga contexts. It addresses the lexicographic challenges posed by kinship terms' cultural specificity and structural diversity across languages. Using a descriptive qualitative methodology, data were collected from the English-Tsonga/Tsonga-English Pocket Dictionary (2008) and the Pharos Bilingual Dictionary: English-Xitsonga/Xitsonga-English (2021). This study is guided by the user-driven approach to lexicography. The study has found that even though bilingual dictionaries offer some accurate equivalents, they often lack full definitions and overlook specific cultural nuances. Cultural differences between English and Xitsonga were identified as key factors limiting the inclusion of kinship equivalents. To improve the accuracy and cultural representation of kinship terms, this study recommends expanding definitions to cover a wider range of familial relationships and ensuring all relevant Xitsonga equivalents are included to reflect its cultural distinctions. These findings contribute to understanding the challenges and opportunities of presenting kinship terms and informing the improvement of bilingual lexicographic resources for Xitsonga.

Indigenous languages in South Africa must be preserved to ensure that they do not lose their identity and become extinct. The four indigenous languages with the fewest speakers among South Africa’s 12 official languages are: Xitsonga, Siswati, Tshivenḓa and isiNdebele. The preservation of these languages in South Africa has been a long-standing challenge because of various social and economic factors. With the advancement of technology, opportunities have arisen to preserve and promote the use of these languages. Therefore, this study explores various technological strategies that can be used to preserve the South African indigenous languages. These languages can be preserved by making them widely accessible to users through various strategies such as localisation of daily used technology, translation through crowdsourcing, digitisation and archiving. Digital learning tools such as machine translation (MT) and creating online dictionaries can also contribute to preserving these languages. Each of these strategies offers benefits on how technology could be employed effectively and facilitate the preservation of indigenous languages. This study demonstrates the significance of technology in preserving indigenous languages and promoting their use around the world.ContributionThis study fills the practical gap in the use of technology to adequately preserve minority indigenous languages of South Africa, namely, Xitsonga, Siswati, Tshivenḓa and isiNdebele. These languages do not receive much attention in terms of preservation using technology in South Africa. Therefore, the study provides practical technological strategies that need to be implemented to preserve the indigenous minority languages. The insight of this study into the use of technology to preserve South African languages fits well within the scope of Literator, which is to publish studies in linguistics and literature with a special focus on South African languages. This publication will bring solutions to how minority languages could be preserved in the context of South Africa.

Reading is developed over time and involves the interaction of both simple and complex skills characterised by a hierarchical sequence of foundational reading skills. However, research has shown that children who do not acquire mastery of foundational reading skills have limited chances of acquiring reading success. This study examines the relations between sub-components of reading in Xitsonga and their impact on Grade 1 learners’ reading ability. It also aims to identify which early reading skills predict later reading accomplishment. Data in this study was obtained from 75 Grade 1 learners in the Limpopo Province. The early-grade reading assessment tool adapted to Xitsonga was used to test the learners’ foundational reading skills: phonological and phonemic awareness, letter-sound knowledge, word reading, oral reading fluency and reading comprehension skills. The results present a compelling relationship between the subcomponents of reading and show that deficits in the development of foundational reading skills negatively impact learners’ ability to read. Regression analysis showed that oral reading fluency was the only significant predictor of reading comprehension. Hence, there is a need for reading to be taught and learned consciously in alphabetic languages to help learners develop their early reading skills, which play important roles in the acquisition of reading.