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Can Active Labour Market Programmes Emulate the Mental Health Benefits of Regular Paid Employment? Longitudinal Evidence from the United Kingdom
Active Labour Market Programmes (ALMPs), which form important components of employment support policies around the world, have been found to improve mental health and wellbeing of participants. However, it remains unclear how these health effects compare with the effects of different types of employment for men and women. Using 1991–2019 panel data in the UK, we find that unemployed women derive similar mental health benefits from ALMPs compared with employment. Unemployed men also benefit from ALMPs but obtain significantly more health benefits from formal employment. Such benefits are particularly pronounced in full-time, permanent and upper/middle-status jobs. Further analyses reveal that programmes that deliver human capital training have larger mental health benefits than employment assistance ALMPs. These findings provide a more nuanced understanding of the mental health impacts of ALMPs compared with different types of employment, and highlight the need for a more gender-sensitive design in labour market interventions.
Journal Article
Investigating the Capability Approach: How Long-Term Unemployed People in Finland Perceive Their Access to Commodities, Conversion Factors and Capabilities
Capability Approach (CA) extends our understanding of wellbeing by underlining the importance of freedoms. There is a need to operationalize CA components for empirical measurement in different settings and population groups. This study investigated the conversion process from perceived resources to perceived capabilities by investigating the role of perceived conversion factors (personal and contextual) among a particular population group of Finnish long-term unemployed persons (
N
= 511, year 2016), aged 20–64 years, not receiving activation services, recruited through a service system and registers (random sampling). We used the label “perceived” to highlight that our approach was subjective, meaning that we measured respondents’ own perceptions of their commodities, conversion factors and capabilities. Data were collected in the PROMEQ project using a structured, self-employed questionnaire. Perceived capabilities were measured on a 7 + 1 item scale of self-reported capabilities. The main statistical methods applied were crosstabs with chi² tests, Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). Long-term unemployed perceived poorer capabilities compared to the general Finnish population. Long-term unemployed men perceived poorer capabilities compared to long-term unemployed women. CFA indicated the data fit with the CA. The SEM model supported the theoretical assumptions of CA: perceived commodities associated with perceived capabilities strongly but indirectly through perceived social and environmental conversion factors. Group analysis (SEM) demonstrated, that between genders the CA-models were slightly differentiated. The results indicate the need for more effective capability promotion, and for targeted practices acknowledging variety of circumstances of the long-term unemployed. CA could offer a comprehensive tool for this task.
Journal Article
Unemployment and the Division of Housework in Europe
Unemployment, especially in insecure times, has devastating effects on families, but it is not clear what happens to domestic work. On the one hand, unemployment frees up time for more housework by both men and women. On the other hand, once unemployed, women may take on more additional housework than men do, either because they capitalize on their time to act out traditional gender roles or because unemployment compounds women’s general disadvantage in household bargaining. Multi-level analyses based on the European Social Survey show that both men and women perform more housework when unemployed. However, the extra domestic work for unemployed women is greater than for unemployed men. They also spend more time on housework when their husband is unemployed. Compared to their employed counterparts, unemployed women, but not men, perform even more housework in a country where the unemployment rate is higher.
Journal Article
HUSBAND’S UNEMPLOYMENT AND WIFE’S LABOR SUPPLY
This article investigates the responsiveness of women’s labor supply to their husband’s job loss—the so-called added worker effect. The authors contribute to the literature by taking an explicit internationally comparative perspective in analyzing the variation of the added worker effect across welfare regimes. Using longitudinal data from the European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) survey covering 28 European countries from 2004 to 2013, they find evidence of an added worker effect, which, however, varies over both the business cycle and the different welfare regimes in Europe. The latter result might be explained, in part, by differences in the design of the unemployment benefit system across countries, which create different incentives for the labor supply of wives of unemployed men.
Journal Article
The Ideal Job‐Seeker Norm: Unemployment and Marital Privileges in the Professional Middle‐Class
Objective To understand how heterosexual US married parents interpret and respond to a spouse's unemployment and subsequent job‐searching. Background The pervasiveness of employment uncertainty, and unemployment, may propel families to embrace gender egalitarian norms. Quantitative research finds that this possibility is not borne out. Qualitative research has sought to illuminate mechanisms as to how gender norms persist even during a time that is optimal for dismantling them, but these mechanisms remain unclear. Method Seventy‐two in‐depth interviews were conducted with a nonrandom sample of heterosexual, professional, dual‐earner, married, unemployed women, men, and their spouses in the United States. Follow‐up interviews were conducted with 35 participants. Intensive family observations were conducted with four families, two of unemployed men, and two of unemployed women. Results Unemployed women, men, and spouses acknowledge that a set of time‐intensive activities are key for reemployment (the ideal job‐seeker norm). Couples with unemployed men direct resources such as time, space, and even money to facilitate unemployed men's compliance with the ideal job‐seeker norm. Couples downplay the importance of women's reemployment and do not direct similar resources to help unemployed women job‐search. Conclusion Couples preserve a traditional gender status quo, often in defiance of material realities, by actively maintaining men's position at the helm of paid work and women's at unpaid work. Implications Linking unemployment and job‐seeking with the institution of heterosexual marriage reveals novel insights into social and marital processes shaping job‐seeking.
Journal Article
Employment status and subjective well-being
This article examines to what extent a social norm to work moderates the relationship between employment status and subjective well-being. It was expected that the detrimental impact of non-employment on subjective well-being would be larger in countries with a stronger social norm. Using a direct measure of the social norm to work and employing data from 45 European countries, this study assessed subjective well-being levels of five employment status groups for men and women separately. Results showed that subjective well-being of unemployed men and women is unaffected by the social norm to work. However, non-working disabled men are worse off in countries with a stronger norm. Living in such a country also decreases the well-being gap between employed and retired men, whereas retired women are worse off in these countries. This effect for retirees disappears when a country’s GDP is taken into account, suggesting that norms matter less than affluence.
Journal Article
Minding the gaps
In a webinar in 2015 on health financing and gender, the question was raised why we need to focus on gender, given that a well-functioning system moving towards Universal Health Coverage (UHC) will automatically be equitable and gender balanced. This article provides a reflection on this question from a panel of health financing and gender experts.
We trace the evidence of how health-financing reforms have impacted gender and health access through a general literature review and a more detailed case-study of India. We find that unless explicit attention is paid to gender and its intersectionality with other social stratifications, through explicit protection and careful linking of benefits to needs of target populations (e. g. poor women, unemployed men, femaleheaded households), movement towards UHC can fail to achieve gender balance or improve equity, and may even exacerbate gender inequity. Political trade-offs are made on the road to UHC and the needs of less powerful groups, which can include women and children, are not necessarily given priority.
We identify the need for closer collaboration between health economists and gender experts, and highlight a number of research gaps in this field which should be addressed. While some aspects of cost sharing and some analysis of expenditure on maternal and child health have been analysed from a gender perspective, there is a much richer set of research questions to be explored to guide policy making. Given the political nature of UHC decisions, political economy as well as technical research should be prioritized.
We conclude that countries should adopt an equitable approach towards achieving UHC and, therefore, prioritize high-need groups and those requiring additional financial protection, in particular women and children. This constitutes the ‘progressive universalism’advocated for by the 2013 Lancet Commission on Investing in Health.
Journal Article
Stand By Your Man: Wives' Emotion Work During Men's Unemployment
Recent research on unemployment has not sufficiently acknowledged how unemployment reverberates within families, particularly emotionally. This article uses data from more than 50 in-depth interviews to illuminate the emotional demands that men's unemployment makes beyond the unemployed individual. It show that wives of unemployed men do two types of emotion work—self-focused and other-focused—and both are aimed toward facilitating husbands' success in the emotionally arduous white-collar job-search process. This article extends research on emotion work by suggesting that participants perceive wives' emotion work as a resource with potential economic benefits in the form of unemployed men's reemployment. The findings furthermore suggest that as a resource, wives' emotion work is shaped by the demands of the labor market that their husbands encounter.
Journal Article
Social inequalities in health: duration of unemployment unevenly effects on the health of men and women
Abstract
Background
Employment status is an important determinant of health inequalities. The aim of this article is to analyze the association between duration of unemployment and the presence of cardiovascular risk factors, self-perception of health and presence of depression and anxiety, assessing differences in the effects of unemployment by sex and age.
Methods
The sample was composed of 12 123 people (52.4% men), 18 to 74 years old (mean age= 43.5 years, SD = 10.4). Logistic regression analyses were used to study the influence of duration of unemployment on health (‘0 days’, ‘≤11 months’ and ‘≥12 months’). Sex, age, level of education, employment status and time spent unemployed, as well as tobacco and alcohol use and physical activity, were considered. Morbidity variables were hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes, obesity, depression and anxiety, and a subjective health assessment.
Results
The results showed both unemployed men and women had worse outcome in health compared with their active counterparts. The risk of hypertension was presented in long-term unemployed men, which had 1.3 times more likely to suffer from hypertension. The risk of obesity was presented only in unemployed women, which had 1.5 times more risk of obesity, doubling the risk (OR= 2.2) among women under age 40. The unemployment had a protective effect against anxiety among younger women (OR = 0.53)
Conclusion
It has been observed a different influence of unemployment time on men and women’s health. The employment status should be considered in public health policy agendas with the purpose of reducing inequalities in health.
Journal Article