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Despite the fact that most plants accumulate both sodium (Na⁺) and chloride (Cl⁻) ions to high concentration in their shoot tissues when grown in saline soils, most research on salt tolerance in annual plants has focused on the toxic effects of Na⁺ accumulation. There have also been some recent concerns about the ability of hydroponic systems to predict the responses of plants to salinity in soil. To address these two issues, an experiment was conducted to compare the responses to Na⁺ and to Cl⁻ separately in comparison with the response to NaCl in a soil-based system using two varieties of faba bean (Vicia faba), that differed in salinity tolerance. The variety Nura is a salt-sensitive variety that accumulates Na⁺ and Cl⁻ to high concentrations while the line 1487/7 is salt tolerant which accumulates lower concentrations of Na⁺ and Cl⁻. Soils were prepared which were treated with Na⁺ or Cl⁻ by using a combination of different Na⁺ salts and Cl⁻ salts, respectively, or with NaCl. While this method produced Na⁺-dominant and Cl⁻-dominant soils, it unavoidably led to changes in the availability of other anions and cations, but tissue analysis of the plants did not indicate any nutritional deficiencies or toxicities other than those targeted by the salt treatments. The growth, water use, ionic composition, photosynthesis, and chlorophyll fluorescence were measured. Both high Na⁺ and high Cl⁻ reduced growth of faba bean but plants were more sensitive to Cl⁻ than to Na⁺. The reductions in growth and photosynthesis were greater under NaCl stress and the effect was mainly additive. An important difference to previous hydroponic studies was that increasing the concentrations of NaCl in the soil increased the concentration of Cl⁻ more than the concentration of Na⁺. The data showed that salinity caused by high concentrations of NaCl can reduce growth by the accumulation of high concentrations of both Na⁺ and Cl⁻ simultaneously, but the effects of the two ions may differ. High Cl⁻ concentration reduces the photosynthetic capacity and quantum yield due to chlorophyll degradation which may result from a structural impact of high Cl⁻ concentration on PSII. High Na⁺ interferes with K⁺ and Ca²⁺ nutrition and disturbs efficient stomatal regulation which results in a depression of photosynthesis and growth. These results suggest that the importance of Cl⁻ toxicity as a cause of reductions in growth and yield under salinity stress may have been underestimated.

Background Salinity is a major abiotic stress, and the use of saline water in the agricultural sector will incur greater demand under the current and future climate changing scenarios. The objective of this study was to develop a dual-functional nanofertilizer capable of releasing a micronutrient that nourishes plant growth while enhancing salt stress resilience in faba bean ( Vicia faba L.). Results Moringa oleifera leaf extract was used to synthesize sulfur nanoparticles (SNPs), which were applied as a foliar spray at different concentrations (0, 25, 50, and 100 mg/l) to mitigate the negative effects of salt stress (150 mM NaCl) on faba bean plants. The SNPs were characterized and found to be spherical in shape with an average size of 10.98 ± 2.91 nm. The results showed that salt stress had detrimental effects on the growth and photosynthetic performance (Fv/Fm) of faba bean compared with control, while foliar spraying with SNPs improved these parameters under salinity stress. SNPs application also increased the levels of osmolytes (soluble sugars, amino acids, proline, and glycine betaine) and nonenzymatic antioxidants, while reducing the levels of oxidative stress biomarkers (MDA and H 2 O 2 ). Moreover, SNPs treatment under salinity stress stimulated the activity of antioxidant enzymes (ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and peroxidase (POD), polyphenol oxidase (PPO)) and upregulated the expression of stress-responsive genes: chlorophyll a-b binding protein of LHCII type 1-like (Lhcb1), ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase large chain-like (RbcL), cell wall invertase I (CWINV1), ornithine aminotransferase (OAT), and ethylene-responsive transcription factor 1 (ERF1) , with the greatest upregulation observed at 50 mg/l SNPs. Conclusion Overall, foliar application of sulfur nanofertilizers in agriculture could improve productivity while minimizing the deleterious effects of salt stress on plants. Therefore, this study provides a strong foundation for future research focused on evaluating the replacement of conventional sulfur-containing fertilizers with their nanoforms to reduce the harmful effects of salinity stress and enhance the productivity of faba beans.

Background One of the primary challenges that the expanding population faces is water scarcity. Thus, a global imperative has been established to safeguard extant water resources and optimize their utility through sustainable practices and efficient management. In the present investigation, Azolla pinnata , a pteridophyte (fern), was employed to phytoremediate Cr (VI) from chromium-polluted water. The potential of this treated water for agricultural purposes was verified through the use of Vicia faba plants. Results In vitro, A. pinnata effectively remediates Cr (VI) from an array of liquid concentrations (0.05 to 90 ppm) in a ratio of 25:1 {volume (mL): fresh weight of Azolla (g)} after 2 days incubation period at room temperature. At low concentrations (0.1 ppm), the phytoremediation capacity peaked at 70%, falling to 19.53% at a high concentration (90 ppm). Upon continuous irrigation with Cr-polluted water (0.05 to 50 ppm), the in vivo pot experiment on Vicia faba plants revealed high Cr accumulation in the roots reached 52.5 mg Kg -1 dry weight (Dwt) at the 50 ppm Cr treatment. Nevertheless, a reduced Cr content of 19.5 mg Kg -1 Dwt was observed when the plants were irrigated with 50 ppm Cr-polluted water that had been treated with Azolla . At 50 ppm of Cr, Azolla's  treatment significantly increased shoot length, fresh weight, and Chl a content to 25.25 cm, 3.4 g, and 6.5 mg g -1 Dwt, respectively, up from 10.25, 1.8, and 4.7 in untreated plants. The chromosomal aberrations were significantly induced in the dividing cells of all Cr treatments, with the highest value of 4.8% at 50 ppm. This value was reduced to 2.88% at the same concentration when treated with Azolla . At a concentration of 10 ppm Cr, the mitotic index was significantly improved to 6.99% when combined with Azolla , as opposed to 3.63% when the same concentration was used without Azolla . The DNA degradation assay showed partial DNA degradation at 50 ppm Cr, which the Azolla treatment eliminated. Furthermore, the gene expression levels of both the PM H + -ATPase and the calcium-dependent protein kinase CDPK5 were upregulated in response to Cr, despite the fact that the expression level was altered in a dose- and concentration-dependent manner by Azolla treatment. Conclusion Azolla exhibits substantial potential for reducing the detrimental effects of chromium stress including oxidative stress on plants. It modulates stress-related gene expression, protects DNA integrity, enhances cell mitosis, and reduces chromosomal damage. These results indicate that Azolla has the potential to be a valuable asset in phytoremediation strategies for chromium-contaminated environments, and that it may enhance plant survival and growth under Cr stress conditions. Key message Azolla pinnata can be effectively utilized as an environmentally-friendly method to remediate chromium-contaminated water for agricultural usage. Highlights • A. pinnata remediates Cr(VI) from liquid concentrations with 70% phytoremediation capacity at low concentrations. •  A. pinnata treatment greatly decreased Cr buildup and improved Vicia faba growth under Cr stress. • In Vicia faba , A. pinnata increased mitotic index, reduced Cr-induced chromosomal aberrations, and modulated the expression of genes linked to stress.

Water deficit has devastating impacts on legume production, particularly with the current abrupt climate changes in arid environments. The application of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) is an effective approach for producing natural nitrogen and attenuating the detrimental effects of drought stress. This study investigated the influence of inoculation with the PGPR Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar viciae (USDA 2435) and Pseudomonas putida (RA MTCC5279) solely or in combination on the physio-biochemical and agronomic traits of five diverse Vicia faba cultivars under well-watered (100% crop evapotranspiration [ETc]), moderate drought (75% ETc), and severe drought (50% ETc) conditions in newly reclaimed poor-fertility sandy soil. Drought stress substantially reduced the expression of photosynthetic pigments and water relation parameters. In contrast, antioxidant enzyme activities and osmoprotectants were considerably increased in plants under drought stress compared with those in well-watered plants. These adverse effects of drought stress reduced crop water productivity (CWP) and seed yield‐related traits. However, the application of PGPR, particularly a consortium of both strains, improved these parameters and increased seed yield and CWP. The evaluated cultivars displayed varied tolerance to drought stress: Giza-843 and Giza-716 had the highest tolerance under well-watered and moderate drought conditions, whereas Giza-843 and Sakha-4 were more tolerant under severe drought conditions. Thus, co-inoculation of drought-tolerant cultivars with R. leguminosarum and P. putida enhanced their tolerance and increased their yield and CWP under water-deficit stress conditions. This study showed for the first time that the combined use of R. leguminosarum and P. putida is a promising and ecofriendly strategy for increasing drought tolerance in legume crops.

Increasing the proportion of locally produced plant protein in currently meat-rich diets could substantially reduce greenhouse gas emissions and loss of biodiversity1. However, plant protein production is hampered by the lack of a cool-season legume equivalent to soybean in agronomic value2. Faba bean (Vicia faba L.) has a high yield potential and is well suited for cultivation in temperate regions, but genomic resources are scarce. Here, we report a high-quality chromosome-scale assembly of the faba bean genome and show that it has expanded to a massive 13 Gb in size through an imbalance between the rates of amplification and elimination of retrotransposons and satellite repeats. Genes and recombination events are evenly dispersed across chromosomes and the gene space is remarkably compact considering the genome size, although with substantial copy number variation driven by tandem duplication. Demonstrating practical application of the genome sequence, we develop a targeted genotyping assay and use high-resolution genome-wide association analysis to dissect the genetic basis of seed size and hilum colour. The resources presented constitute a genomics-based breeding platform for faba bean, enabling breeders and geneticists to accelerate the improvement of sustainable protein production across the Mediterranean, subtropical and northern temperate agroecological zones.

In order to address the question of how flavonoids affected root nodulation of faba bean in a wheat and faba bean intercropping system, we set up soil and hydroponic experiments comprising two cropping pattern treatments (intercropped and monocropped) and three nitrogen (N) supply treatments at the deficient (50% N), adequate (100% N), and excessive (150% N) levels with three replicates in a randomized complete block design. Across the three N treatments and two experiments, it was frequently observed that intercropping increased but N fertilization decreased the nodule number and nodule dry weight of faba bean. Six types of flavonoids were detected in the faba bean root secretion, but only genistein, hesperetin, and naringenin often had significant correlations with the nodule number and nodule dry weight. Intercropping increased faba bean root secretions of genistein, hesperetin, and naringenin compared to monoculture only at the deficient and adequate N supply levels. The differences in flavonoids of faba bean caused by the intercropped patterns, N supply levels, and their interactions were mainly significant at flowering stage. In conclusion, interspecies and N supply interactively altered the contents and proportions of flavonoids in faba bean root exudations under wheat and faba bean intercropping. These findings provide insight into flavonoids-nodule-yield interactions in cereal and legume intercropping systems.

Magnesium plays a vital role in enhancing plant resilience under salt stress. However, its specific function in maintaining ion homeostasis, particularly in regulating sodium uptake, remains unclear. Recognizing that magnesium deficiency leads to increased potassium uptake and accumulation, and given that sodium and potassium possess the same charge, we hypothesize that salt stress disrupts ion homeostasis to a greater extent in magnesium-deficient plants compared to those deficient in potassium. To test this hypothesis, Vicia faba plants were cultivated hydroponically and subjected to moderate salinity stress (50 mM NaCl) for 2 weeks starting from four weeks after transplanting. The plants were grown under varying levels of magnesium (0.5 mM sufficient; 0.02 mM deficient) and potassium (2 mM sufficient; 0.3 mM deficient), with harvesting occurring two weeks after exposure to salinity. The results indicated that under salinity conditions, magnesium deficiency had a more severe adverse effects on plant growth and gas exchange parameters than potassium deficiency. Stomatal movement was notably restricted in magnesium-deficient plants, potentially due to the over accumulation of soluble sugars and chloride. In magnesium-deficient plants the Na + /Mg 2+ ratio was significantly higher in leaves (17-fold) and in roots (14-fold) relative to Mg 2+ sufficient plants under salinity stress. Furthermore, the higher K + /Mg 2+ ratio in magnesium-deficient conditions, observed under both saline and non-saline environments, suggests that potassium’s antagonistic effect remains unchanged even under stress conditions. Our findings emphasize for the first time that magnesium, rather than potassium, serves a crucial function in regulating the ion homeostasis necessary for normal plant growth and development in saline environments.

Root growth is influenced by soil nutrients and neighbouring plants, but how these two drivers affect root interactions and regulate plant growth dynamics is poorly understood. Here, interactions between the roots of maize (Zea mays) and faba bean (Vicia faba) are characterized. Maize was grown alone (maize) or with maize (maize/maize) or faba bean (maize/faba bean) as competitors under five levels of phosphorus (P) supply, and with homogeneous or heterogeneous P distribution. Maize had longer root length and greater shoot biomass and P content when grown with faba bean than with maize. At each P supply rate, faba bean had a smaller root system than maize but greater exudation of citrate and acid phosphatase, suggesting a greater capacity to mobilize P in the rhizosphere. Heterogeneous P availability enhanced the root‐length density of maize but not faba bean. Maize root proliferation in the P‐rich patches was associated with increased shoot P uptake. Increased P availability by localized P application or by the presence of faba bean exudation stimulated root morphological plasticity and increased shoot growth in maize in the maize/faba bean mixture, suggesting that root interactions of neighbouring plants can be modified by increased P availability.

Drought stress is a major limitation to legume productivity in arid and semi-arid regions. This study investigated the effectiveness of two novel natural biostimulant formulations (NBFs), composed of bee honey, potassium iodate, and silymarin selected for their complementary antioxidant and osmoprotective functions in enhancing drought tolerance in faba bean ( Vicia faba L.). Plants were subjected to deficit irrigation (withholding one irrigation after every two cycles) and foliar-sprayed with NBFs containing either 7.5 g L⁻¹ (F1) or 15 g L⁻¹ (F2) bee honey combined with 25 mg L⁻¹ potassium iodate and 0.2 mg L⁻¹ silymarin. Deficit irrigation markedly reduced growth, photosynthetic pigments, water status, and yield, while elevating oxidative stress markers. Application of NBFs significantly alleviated these adverse effects by enhancing osmolyte accumulation, improving antioxidant defenses, and restoring photosynthetic efficiency. Hormonal regulation was also improved, with increases in auxin, gibberellins, and cytokinins, alongside reduced abscisic acid levels. Notably, F2 was more effective than F1 in maintaining leaf integrity and maximizing pod yield under drought. These results highlight the potential of honey–iodine–silymarin formulations as eco-friendly, cost-effective biostimulants to promote crop resilience and productivity under water-limited conditions, contributing to sustainable agriculture.

In light of the detrimental consequences of climate change and global warming, drought (water deficit) has emerged as a major abiotic stressor that adversely affects plant development, productivity, and sustainable agriculture globally. Vicia faba L. (faba bean), a highly nutritious leguminous crop, is especially vulnerable to water scarcity. As a possible solution, this study highlighted the recent advances in plant stress physiology regarding the role of kinetin (20 mg/L) and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi in enhancing V. faba resilience to drought (30% water holding capacity) with emphasis on their growth, physiological and biochemical mechanisms. Under controlled conditions, drought markedly decreased plant growth, photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a + b and total pigments), and relative water content (RWC), while increasing stress markers (hydrogen peroxide and electrolyte leakage). Nevertheless, these negative effects were considerably lessened by AM fungi and kinetin application. Their application led to the improvement of V. faba growth parameters, maintaining cellular hydration (high RWC), higher activity of antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, catalase, peroxidase, ascorbate peroxidase, and polyphenol oxidase) and organic adjustments which include total soluble protein, proline and total soluble carbohydrate. The most surpassing effect is that AM fungal inoculation enhanced the soil-rich glomalin content, both easily and total extractable. Regarding the effect of drought stress on mycorrhizal colonization; microscopic observation showed a noticeable reduction in the formation of arbuscules and vesicles under drought. Although reduced colonization, AM fungi can nevertheless benefit host plants. These findings highlight the potential of integrating AM fungal inoculation or kinetin treatment as an eco-friendly strategy to enhance drought resilience in V. faba cultivation.