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A comprehensive taxonomic treatment for the New World genus Duranta L. (Duranteae, Verbenaceae) is presented for the first time. The genus consists of shrubs or small trees that are largely distributed in the Neotropics. The analyses of the morphological features support the recognition of 31 Duranta species. Duranta repens L. var. canescens Moldenke and D. mutisii L. f. serrulata Moldenke are elevated to the species rank. The previously misunderstood identity of D. obtusifolia Kunth is here untangled and properly discussed, while D. buxifolia Poir., endemic to the Caribbean, and D. xalapensis Kunth, endemic to Mexico, are resurrected from the synonymy of D. triacantha Juss. and D. erecta L., respectively. Eight taxa are here synonymized: D. brachypoda Tod. (= D. erecta), D. repens var. lopez-palacii Moldenke (= D. canescens P. Moroni), D. repens var. serrata Moldenke (= D. stenostachya Tod.), D. sprucei Briq. var. breviracemosa Moldenke (= D. mutisii), D. arida subsp. serpentina R. W. Sanders & Judd (= D. arida Britton & P. Wilson), D. peruviana var. longipedicellata Moldenke (= D. peruviana Moldenke), D. parvifolia Moldenke (= D. vestita), and D. vestita var. glabrescens Moldenke (= D. vestita Cham.). Duranta cajamarcensis Moldenke and D. parviflora Turcz. are reclassified as belonging to genera Citharexylum L. and Priva Adans., respectively. Lectotypes are designated for the names D. recurvistachys Rusby (second-step), D. rostrata Pasq., and D. xalapensis Kunth. Furthermore, D. penlandii Moldenke is reported for the first time in Colombia.

• Premise of the study: A new infrafamilial circumscription of the Verbenaceae with eight tribes: Casselieae, Citharexyleae, Duranteae, Lantaneae, Neospartoneae, Petreeae, Priveae, and Verbeneae, has been recently proposed, on the basis of molecular phylogenetic studies. Two genera, Dipyrena and Rhaphithamnus, remain unplaced. The aim of this work is to reconstruct the evolutionary history of morphological characters traditionally employed in the classification of the Verbenaceae, with special attention to tribes Verbeneae and Lantaneae.• Methods: Twenty-one characters, related to habit and vegetative morphology, inflorescence and floral morphology, ovary and fruit morphology, as well as chromosome number, were optimized over a molecular phylogeny of Verbenaceae.• Key Results: All tribes are supported by at least one morphological trait except tribes Duranteae and Citharexyleae. Suffrutescent habit, sessile flowers, and four cluses are synapomorphies for tribe Verbeneae. Gynoecium with short style and entire stigma are synapomorphic traits for tribe Lantaneae. Sessile flowers and unicarpellate ovaries are morphological synapomorphies for the new tribe Neospartoneae. Suffrutescent habit is a synapomorphic trait for tribe Priveae. Homothetic pleiobotrya and absence of the adaxial staminode are synapomorphic traits for tribe Casselieae. Undivided fleshy fruits are probably a synapomorphic trait for tribe Petreeae. Putative plesiomorphies for the ancestor of the Verbenaceae are discussed as well as synapomorphic traits within other Verbenaceae clades.• Conclusions: Many of the characters traditionally employed in classification have proven to be very homoplastic, or have been shown not to support relationships within the family. Moreover, traditional assumptions concerning character polarity have in some cases been shown to be incorrect.

Plant autophagy plays an important role in various developmental processes such as seed germination, pollen maturation and leaf senescence. However, studies that address the evidence of autophagy and its role in the development of plant glands are scarce and largely restricted to laticifers. Regarding nectary, studies have repeatedly pointed to signs of degradation associated with the end of the secretory cycle, without exploring autophagy. Likewise, the relationship between autophagy and biogenesis of vacuoles remains an unexplored issue. In this study, using conventional and microwave fixation in association with ultracytochemical methods for transmission electron microscopy, we investigated the occurrence of autophagy and its implication in the differentiation of extrafloral nectary in Citharexylum myrianthum (Verbenaceae) under natural conditions, focusing on the vacuole biogenesis. We described a variety of vacuole types associated with the stage of nectary epidermis development, which differs with respect to origin, function and nature of the products to be stored. Three distinct autophagy pathways were detected: macroautophagy, microautophagy (both restricted to the undifferentiated epidermal cells, at the presecretory stage) and megaautophagy (circumscribed to the differentiated epidermal cells, at the postsecretory stage). Our study clearly demonstrated that the vacuole variety and autophagy processes in the nectary epidermal cells are development specific. This study highlights the role of autophagy in vacuole biogenesis and its implications for the development of nectary and opens new venues for future studies on regulation mechanisms for autophagy in plant secretory structures under normal conditions.

A taxonomic revision of Bouchea Cham. (Duranteae, Verbenaceae) is presented, updating the last formal revision of the genus by Moldenke from 1940, with a more comprehensive and profound study of herbarium material. The analyses of the morphological features support the recognition of 13 Bouchea species. A new combination is proposed for Stachytarpheta bifurca Benth. (≡ B. bifurca (Benth.) P. Moroni & N. O'Leary), and B. boyacana Moldenke var. glabrata Moldenke is elevated to the species rank. Eight taxa are here synonymized: B. inopinata Moldenke (= B. agrestis Schauer), B. prismatica (L.) Kuntze var. brevirostra Grenzeb. (= B. bifurca), B. beckii Moldenke (= B. boliviana (Kuntze) Moldenke), B. flabelliformis M. E. Jones (= B. dissecta S. Watson), B. prismatica var. laciniata Grenzeb. (= B. dissecta), S. kingii Moldenke (= B. nelsonii Grenzeb.), B. boyacana Moldenke (= B. prismatica), and B. spathulata Torr. var. longiflora Moldenke (= B. spathulata). Lectotypes are designated for the names B. incrassata Lange (second-step), B. rusbyi Moldenke (second-step), and S. laxiflora Turcz. Furthermore, B. boliviana is reported for the first time growing in Argentina, B. notabilis Moldenke in Ecuador, and B. rusbyi in Brazil and Peru.

Intense exercise is directly related to muscular damage and oxidative stress due to excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) in both, plasma and white blood cells. Nevertheless, exercise-derived ROS are essential to regulate cellular adaptation to exercise. Studies on antioxidant supplements have provided controversial results. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of moderate antioxidant supplementation (lemon verbena extract) in healthy male volunteers that followed a 90-min running eccentric exercise protocol for 21 days. Antioxidant enzymes activities and oxidative stress markers were measured in neutrophils. Besides, inflammatory cytokines and muscular damage were determined in whole blood and serum samples, respectively. Intense running exercise for 21 days induced antioxidant response in neutrophils of trained male through the increase of the antioxidant enzymes catalase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase. Supplementation with moderate levels of an antioxidant lemon verbena extract did not block this cellular adaptive response and also reduced exercise-induced oxidative damage of proteins and lipids in neutrophils and decreased myeloperoxidase activity. Moreover, lemon verbena supplementation maintained or decreased the level of serum transaminases activity indicating a protection of muscular tissue. Exercise induced a decrease of interleukin-6 and interleukin-1β levels after 21 days measured in basal conditions, which was not inhibited by antioxidant supplementation. Therefore, moderate antioxidant supplementation with lemon verbena extract protects neutrophils against oxidative damage, decreases the signs of muscular damage in chronic running exercise without blocking the cellular adaptation to exercise.

Background and aims - The last comprehensive study that estimated the number of Verbenaceae genera and species was published in 2004, and included 34 genera and around 1200 species. Since then, several publications based on morphology and/or molecular data have proposed important changes within the family. Due to the lack of updated literature to cite when referring to the number of Verbenaceae taxa, a review of these estimates is necessary. Key results and conclusion - We present a detailed list of genera currently accepted in Verbenaceae with the number of species contained in each and compare our numbers with the previous estimate. In addition, we indicate the geographic distribution and the most recent important taxonomic or phylogenetic works for each genus. Our compilation shows that Verbenaceae have 32 genera and 800 species currently accepted. This work provides up-to-date numbers and brings a holistic view of the family.

A comprehensive taxonomic treatment for the New World genus Duranta L. (Duranteae, Verbenaceae) is presented for the first time. The genus consists of shrubs or small trees that are largely distributed in the Neotropics. The analyses of the morphological features support the recognition of 31 Duranta species. Duranta repens L. var. canescens Moldenke and D. mutisii L. f. serrulata Moldenke are elevated to the species rank. The previously misunderstood identity of D. obtusifolia Kunth is here untangled and properly discussed, while D. buxifolia Poir., endemic to the Caribbean, and D. xalapensis Kunth, endemic to Mexico, are resurrected from the synonymy of D. triacantha Juss. and D. erecta L., respectively. Eight taxa are here synonymized: D. brachypoda Tod. (= D. erecta), D. repens var. lopez-palacii Moldenke (= D. canescens P. Moroni), D. repens var. serrata Moldenke (= D. stenostachya Tod.), D. sprucei Briq. var. breviracemosa Moldenke (= D. mutisii), D. arida subsp. serpentina R. W. Sanders & Judd (= D. arida Britton & P. Wilson), D. peruviana var. longipedicellata Moldenke (= D. peruviana Moldenke), D. parvifolia Moldenke (= D. vestita), and D. vestita var. glabrescens Moldenke (= D. vestita Cham.). Duranta cajamarcensis Moldenke and D. parviflora Turcz. are reclassified as belonging to genera Citharexylum L. and Priva Adans., respectively. Lectotypes are designated for the names D. recurvistachys Rusby (second-step), D. rostrata Pasq., and D. xalapensis Kunth. Furthermore, D. penlandii Moldenke is reported for the first time in Colombia.

The metabolic variation in the essential oil composition of Premna odorata leaves obtained from different seasons was quantitatively and qualitatively determined employing GC/MS (Gas Chromatography coupled with Mass Spectrometry) and GC/FID (Gas chromatography equipped with flame ionization detector) techniques. It displayed the existence of 97 constituents accounting for 94.19%, 92.27%, 91.95% and 92.63% for POS (spring), POM (summer), POA (autumn) and POW (winter) whole essential oils. β-Caryophyllene constituting the main metabolite in the oil in the different seasons. To better visualize the differences between them, GC data were exposed to chemometric analysis. A PCA (principal component analysis) score plot revealed the closeness of POS and POW. Molecular modelling on collagenase, elastase and hyaluronidase enzymes active centres shows that different compounds existing in the essential oil of Premna odorata leaves shows binding to the active sites with variable degrees that suggested its anti-ageing potential. Palmitic acid displayed the highest fitting for both the collagenase and elastase active centres in both pH-based and rule-based ionization methods with ∆G equals −78.27 and −44.77 kcal/mol, respectively; meanwhile, heptacosane showed the highest fitting score in the hyaluronidase centre with ∆G = −43.78 kcal/mol. In vitro assays consolidates the obtained modelling studies in which essential oil shows considerable anti-elastase and anti-hyaluronidase potential as evidenced by their IC50 values being 49.3 and 37.7 μg/mL, respectively; meanwhile, the essential oil of Premna odorata leaves displayed mild anti-collagenase potential. Thus, it can be concluded that Premna odorata could serve as a promising anti-ageing naturally occurring drug that could be effectively incorporated by pharmaceutical industries in cosmetics combating ageing and skin wrinkling.

The destructive effect and mode of action of lemon verbena essential oil on cells were investigated, taking the isolated Pseudosciaena D4 as the research object. The extracellular absorbance of the Pseudosciaena D4 increased at OD260 and OD280 after being treated with lemon verbena essential oil, which destroyed the integrity of Pseudosciaena D4 cells, showing a significant effect on preventing biomembrane formation and destroying the formed biomembrane. With an increased concentration of lemon verbena essential oil, extracellular polysaccharide showed a significant decrease in content and a significant increase in inhibition rate, indicating that the secretion of extracellular polysaccharide by Pseudosciaena D4 cells could be inhibited by lemon verbena essential oil during the process of biomembrane formation. Cell introcession and shrinkage appeared after the treatment with essential oil, and a transparent cavity was formed by the out-flowed cell content. Lemon verbena essential oil destroyed the cell wall, resulting in an enhanced permeability of the cell membrane and leakage of the contents, thereby causing cell death.

Ultrasonic-assisted extraction was applied to Aloysia citriodora Palau leaves. To achieve this, a set of extraction parameters—temperature, amplitude, and solute-to-solvent ratio—was evaluated. A 3 3 factorial design was implemented, generating 27 treatments, from which total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, and antioxidant capacity against 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS •+ ), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH • ), and hydroxyl (OH • ) radicals were assessed. The extract showing the highest free radical scavenging capacity was obtained at 75 °C, a solute-to-solvent ratio of 1:15, and a wave amplitude of 25%. This extract contained 87.74 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g extract and 76.82 ± 6.21 mg quercetin equivalent (QE)/g extract. Antioxidant capacity was expressed as the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC 50 , µg/mL), with values of 9.08 ± 0.08 µg/mL for ABTS •+ , 35.58 ± 0.50 µg/mL for DPPH • , and 0.72 ± 0.007 mg/mL for OH • . The A. citriodora leaf extract demonstrated strong potential for use in the development of new products containing bioactive molecules capable of preventing degenerative diseases.