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Lichenicolous fungi represent a highly specialized and successful group of organisms that live exclusively on lichens, most commonly as host-specific parasites, but also as broad-spectrum pathogens, saprotrophs or commensals. We present here the most recent update to the classification of lichenicolous fungi in the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota to genus level, arranged phylogenetically according to published classifications. For each genus, all known lichenicolous taxa (obligately lichenicolous taxa, lichenicolous lichens, and facultatively lichenicolous taxa) are listed, along with information about types, synonyms, pertinent literature and whether or not molecular data are available for any of the listed species. The number of accepted lichenicolous fungi is now 2319, with 2000 obligately lichenicolous species, subspecies or varieties, 257 lichenicolous lichens and 62 facultatively lichenicolous taxa. These species are found in 10 different classes of Fungi (Ascomycota and Basidiomycota), 55 orders, 115 families and 397 genera. The 2319 total taxa is an increase from the 1559 total species reported in the last published catalogue in 2003, and a larger number than the approximately 1800 reported in the most recent online checklist (www.lichenicolous.net) posted in January 2018. Of the total number of taxa, 2219 (96%) are ascomycetes and 100 (4%) are basidiomycetes. Of the 397 genera containing lichenicolous species, c. 50% (198) are entirely lichenicolous. In addition, six families (Abrothallaceae, Adelococcaceae, Cyphobasidiaceae, Obryzaceae, Polycoccaceae, Sarcopyreniaceae) and two orders (Abrothallales, Cyphobasidiales) are entirely lichenicolous. Sequence information is available for lichenicolous species in 128 (32%) of the 397 genera containing lichenicolous species, and in 56 (28%) of the 198 entirely lichenicolous genera. Many species are known from only one host lichen, but it is likely that broader host ecologies will be discovered as new sequence information is obtained from ongoing microbiome studies. Phaeopyxis Rambold & Triebel is considered as a new synonym of Bachmanniomyces D.Hawksw., resulting in five new combinations B. australis (Rambold & Triebel) Diederich & Pino-Bodas (≡ P. australis), B. carniolicus (Arnold) Diederich & Pino-Bodas (≡ Biatora carniolica), B. muscigenae (Alstrup & E.S.Hansen) Diederich & Pino-Bodas (≡ P. muscigenae), B. punctum (A.Massal.) Diederich & Pino-Bodas (≡ Nesolechia punctum) and B. varius (Coppins, Rambold & Triebel) Diederich & Pino-Bodas (≡ P. varia). As a consequence of a phylogenetic analysis including new sequences, Dactylospora Körb. is regarded as a new synonym of Sclerococcum Fr. : Fr., resulting in one new name (S. acarosporicola Ertz & Diederich) and 46 new combinations. Sclerococcaceae Réblová, Unter. & W.Gams is considered as a new synonym of Dactylosporaceae Bellem. & Hafellner. The new Sclerococcum ophthalmizae Coppins is described. Sclerophyton occidentale Herre is lectotypified on the lichenicolous fungus present in the type specimen and becomes a younger synonym of Sclerococcum parasiticum. A replacement name is Arthonia polydactylonis Diederich & Ertz (≡ A. ceracea). Further new combinations are Abrothallus lobariae (Diederich & Etayo) Diederich & Ertz (≡ Phoma lobariae), A. psoromatis (Zhurb. & U. Braun) Diederich & Zhurb. (≡ P. psoromatis), Asteroglobulus pyramidalis (Etayo) Diederich (≡ Cornutispora pyramidalis), Didymocyrtis grumantiana (Zhurb. & Diederich) Zhurb. & Diederich (≡ Phoma grumantiana), Epithamnolia atrolazulina (Etayo) Diederich (≡ Hainesia atrolazulina), Gyalolechia epiplacynthium (Etayo) Diederich (≡ Fulgensia epiplacynthium), Nesolechia doerfeltii (Alstrup & P.Scholz) Diederich (≡ Phacopsis doerfeltii), N. falcispora (Triebel & Rambold) Diederich (≡ P. falcispora), N. oxyspora var. fusca (Triebel & Rambold) Diederich (≡ P. oxyspora var. fusca), Preussia peltigerae (Brackel) Diederich (≡ Sporormiella peltigerae), Scutula curvispora (D.Hawksw. & Miądl.) Diederich (≡ Libertiella curvispora), S. didymospora (D.Hawksw. & Miądl.) Diederich (≡ L. didymospora), Stigmidium haesitans (Nyl.) Diederich (≡ Verrucaria haesitans), and S. parvum (Henssen) Diederich (≡ Pharcidia parvum).

The fungal genus Myrothecium was once polyphyletic but a recent reconsideration of the family Stachybotryaceae spilt it into several genera. The ex-neotype specimen of the species Myrothecium verrucaria is now recognized as Albifimbria verrucaria. The well-studied plant pathogen and candidate bioherbicide CABI-IMI 368023, previously identified as M. verrucaria, was analyzed morphologically and genetically and found to be most consistently aligned with the other representatives of A. verrucaria.

The oxygen reduction reaction is one of the most important chemical processes in energy converting systems and living organisms. Mediator-less, direct electro-catalytic reduction of oxygen to water was achieved on spectrographite electrodes modified by physical adsorption of bilirubin oxidases from Myrothecium verrucaria. The existence of an alternative resting form of the enzyme is validated. The effect on the catalytic cycle of temperature, pH and the presence of halogens in the buffer was investigated. Previous results on the electrochemistry of bilirubin oxidase and on the impact of the presence of halogens are reviewed and reinterpreted.

The primary purpose of the study, as part of the planned conservation work, was to uncover all aspects of autochthonous biofilm pertaining to the formation of numerous deterioration symptoms occurring on the limestone Rožanec Mithraeum monument in Slovenia. Using state-of-the-art sequencing technologies combining mycobiome data with observations made via numerous light and spectroscopic (FTIR and Raman) microscopy analyses pointed out to epilithic lichen Gyalecta jenensis and its photobiont, carotenoid-rich Trentepohlia aurea , as the origin of salmon-hued pigmented alterations of limestone surface. Furthermore, the development of the main deterioration symptom on the monument, i.e., biopitting, was instigated by the formation of typical endolithic thalli and ascomata of representative Verrucariaceae family ( Verrucaria sp.) in conjunction with the oxalic acid-mediated dissolution of limestone. The domination of lichenized fungi, as the main deterioration agents, both on the relief and surrounding limestone, was additionally supported by the high relative abundance of lichenized and symbiotroph groups in FUNGuild analysis. Obtained results not only upgraded knowledge of this frequently occurring but often overlooked group of extremophilic stone heritage deteriogens but also provided a necessary groundwork for the development of efficient biocontrol formulation applicable in situ for the preservation of similarly affected limestone monuments.

Lawn grass ( Axonopus compressus ) is a widely distributed grass species from the family Poaceae that is ubiquitous in Malaysia. We isolated endophytic fungi from the leaves of A. compressus and molecularly identified them as Fusarium parceramosum , Colletotrichum siamense , C. gigasporum , C. endophyticum , Curvularia lunata , Stagonospora bicolor , Calonectria gracilis , and Albifimbria verrucari . These fungal endophytes are considered host generalists, as they have been isolated from other plants and have also been reported to be latent plant pathogens. We tested the pathogenicity of selected endophytic fungal isolates on A. compressus leaves, chili ( Capsicum annum ), and tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum ), and found that they were pathogenic to wounded A. compressus leaves with low to moderate virulence, and several were pathogenic to wounded and unwounded chili and tomato fruits. This indicated that the endophytes could infect both vegetable fruits with low to very high virulence. Pathogenicity tests demonstrated that endophytic fungi from the leaves of A. compressus can become pathogenic and infect the host and other plant species. The findings also indicated that leaves of A. compressus may harbor pathogens with latent ability that can become active due to changes in environmental conditions, thereby disrupting the balance between host-endophyte antagonism.

The behavior of Myrothecium verrucaria, artificially inoculated on spinach, was studied under seven different temperature conditions (from 5 to 35 degree C) and under eight different combinations of temperature and CO sub(2) concentration (14-30 degree C and 775-870 or 1550-1650 mg/m super(3)). The isolate used for this study was growing well on spinach, and the mycotoxins verrucarin A and roridin E were produced under all tested temperature and CO sub(2) conditions. The maximum levels of verrucarin A (18.59 ng/g) and roridin E (49.62 ng/g) were found at a temperature of 26-30 degree C and a CO sub(2) level of 1550-1650 mg/m super(3). Rises in temperature as well as in temperature and CO sub(2) concentrations had a significant effect by increasing Myrothecium leaf spots on spinach. The biosynthesis of verrucarin A was significantly increased at the highest temperature (35 degree C), while roridin E was influenced by the CO sub(2) concentration. These results show that a positive correlation between climate condition and macrocyclic trichothecene production is possible. However, because of the ability of M. verrucaria to produce mycotoxins, an increase in temperature could induce the spread of M. verrucaria in temperate regions; this pathogen may gain importance in the future.

The effects of the bioherbicidal activity of the fungal phytopathogen, Albifimbria verrucaria (AV), formerly Myrothecium verrucaria, on glyphosate-resistant and –susceptible Conyza canadensis (horseweed) were examined in greenhouse and field studies. Spray applications of mycelial formulations of AV infected both glyphosate-resistant and -susceptible C. canadensis plants at various growth stages. Young plants in the rosette leaf stage of growth were controlled more efficaciously than were older plants that had bolted or that were in the inflorescence stage; nevertheless, severe injury and mortality also occurred in mature plants. The results indicate that this bioherbicidal fungus can infect and control C. canadensis, thereby demonstrating the potential of this fungus as a bioherbicidal agent against this troublesome weed, which has become resistant to various herbicides.

• Lichens play crucial roles in sustaining the functioning of terrestrial ecosystems; however, the diversity and ecological factors associated with lichenised soil fungi remain poorly understood. • To address this knowledge gap, we used a global field survey including information on fungal sequences of topsoils from 235 terrestrial ecosystems. • We identified 880 lichenised fungal phylotypes across nine biomes ranging from deserts to tropical forests. The diversity and proportion of lichenised soil fungi peaked in shrublands and dry grasslands. Aridity index, plant cover and soil pH were the most important factors associated with the distribution of lichenised soil fungi. Furthermore, we identified Endocarpon, Verrucaria and Rinodina as some of the most dominant lichenised genera across the globe, and they had similar environmental preferences to the lichenised fungal community. In addition, precipitation seasonality and mean diurnal temperature range were also important in predicting the proportion of these dominant genera. Using this information, we were able to create the first global maps of the richness and proportion of the dominant genera of lichenised fungi. • This work provides new insight into the global distribution and ecological preferences of lichenised soil fungi, and supports their dominance in drylands across the globe.

Seven new species of Verrucaria are described from Finland: Verrucaria hakulinenii sp. nov., V. juumaensis sp. nov., V. linkolae sp. nov., V. lohjaensis sp. nov., V. norrlinii sp. nov., V. oulankajokiensis sp. nov., and V. vainioi sp. nov. Verrucaria linkolae is also reported from the Czech Republic, Germany and the United Kingdom, V. norrlinii from Norway and V. juumaensis from Canada based on a previously unidentified soil sample. Based on ITS sequences, V. hakulinenii and V. juumaensis probably belong to the Verrucaria hydrophila group whereas V. linkolae, V. norrlinii, V. oulankajokiensis and V. vainioi are closely related to V. hunsrueckensis and V. nodosa. The new species are characterized by a thin brown or green thallus, rather small perithecia and a predominantly thin involucrellum reaching the exciple base level. Verrucaria hakulinenii is characterized by a thin thalline cover of the perithecia, a green thallus and fairly large spores (18–22 × 8–10 μm). Verrucaria juumaensis, V. linkolae, V. norrlinii and V. vainioi are characterized by a predominantly brown thallus, often with goniocyst-like units. Verrucaria linkolae has densely occurring perithecia (100–330 perithecia per cm2) whereas in V. juumaensis, V. norrlinii and V. vainioi perithecia occur more sparsely (40–160 perithecia per cm2). Verrucaria juumaensis and V. vainioi usually have a minute thallus. Verrucaria juumaensis differs from V. vainioi by slightly larger perithecia (0.18–0.27 mm diam.) and longer and wider spores. Verrucaria lohjaensis is characterized by a mosaically dark brown and white, small areolate thallus and conspicuous ostioles. Verrucaria oulankajokiensis has small perithecia that are often thinly covered by thalline tissue and a thallus partly surrounded by dark lines. Most species occur on calcareous rocks, but V. vainioi is restricted to siliceous rocks. Verrucaria linkolae and V. norrlinii are widely distributed both on calcareous, serpentine and siliceous rocks, preferring pebbles. Epiphytic occurrences of V. linkolae and V. norrlinii are confirmed. A key to the new species and species with a similar morphology in Finland is provided.

This work summarizes the results of the exploration of freshwater lichen biota on the island of Sardinia associated with the regional flagship species Lobothallia hydrocharis, a large-sized crustose lichen from the splash zone along mountain streams, so far known from Sardinia only. Molecular data were used to confirm its distinctiveness from other taxa and its systematic placement and to identify critical taxa among its associated lichen biota. We found 25 species of lichenized fungi, including three species new to science in the genera Verrucaria, Placopyrenium, and Circinaria, and seven species new to Sardinia (Hydropunctaria rheithrophila, Ionaspis chrysophana, I. odora, Verrucaria aquatilis, V. collematodes, V. pseudovirescens), or new to Southern Europe (V. devensis). Specific traits for the freshwater lichen biota of Sardinia were identified and compared to those reported from freshwater sites in the Alps and Carpathian mountains, e.g., a relative scarcity of subgelatinous lichens. Parasitic or epilichenic interactions were found frequently but only in the splash zone and not in the permanently submerged zone, i.e., two parasitic Placopyrenium species, and clearly lichenicolous thalli of Kuettlingeria atroflava and Lobothallia hydrocharis. Due to its specific trait profile and the great potential for the discovery of new species, we recommend the inclusion of Sardinian and further Mediterranean sites in continental-scale monitoring programs for freshwater lichens.