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Summary Adzuki bean (Vigna angularis) is an important legume crop cultivated in over 30 countries worldwide. We developed a high‐quality chromosome‐level reference genome of adzuki bean cultivar Jingnong6 by combining PacBio Sequel long‐read sequencing with short‐read and Hi‐C technologies. The assembled genome covers 97.8% of the adzuki bean genome with a contig N50 of approximately 16 Mb and a total of 32 738 protein‐coding genes. We also generated a comprehensive genome variation map of adzuki bean by whole‐genome resequencing (WGRS) of 322 diverse adzuki beans accessions including both wild and cultivated. Furthermore, we have conducted comparative genomics and a genome‐wide association study (GWAS) on key agricultural traits to investigate the evolution and domestication. GWAS identified several candidate genes, including VaCycA3;1, VaHB15, VaANR1 and VaBm, that exhibited significant associations with domestication traits. Furthermore, we conducted functional analyses on the roles of VaANR1 and VaBm in regulating seed coat colour. We provided evidence for the highest genetic diversity of wild adzuki (Vigna angularis var. nipponensis) in China with the presence of the most original wild adzuki bean, and the occurrence of domestication process facilitating transition from wild to cultigen. The present study elucidates the genetic basis of adzuki bean domestication traits and provides crucial genomic resources to support future breeding efforts in adzuki bean.

Adzuki bean (Vigna angularis var. angularis), an important food legume, is grown in more than 30 countries, especially in East Asia. Almost 25% of the world population is affected by iron deficiency. Iron is very important on adzuki bean yield and quality. The identification of suitable reference genes in adzuki bean is important for exploring gene expression and the molecular mechanisms of gene, yet few reference genes have been reported for adzuki bean. This research systematically evaluated the stability of 11 candidate reference genes (ACT, ACT1, CYP, CYP2, SKIP16, ELF1B, HDC, Lectin, TUA, PEPKR1, and 18SrRNA) using the geNorm, NormFinder, BestKeeper, and RefFinder protocols under iron-deficient stress. The best combined number of reference genes for all samples was two. ELF1B/Lectin was best for qRT-PCR analysis of roots and combined analysis of roots, stems, and leaves under iron deficiency, ELF1B/CYP was optimum for leaves, and SKIP16/PEPKR1 was optimum for stems. The identification of these reference genes will enable accurate quantification of gene expression under iron deficiency and enhance our comprehension of reference genes in adzuki bean.

Adzuki beans are an important food legume crop in East Asia. A large number of adzuki bean accessions are maintained in the Chinese national seed genebank. A collection of 59 elite cultivars, 389 landraces, and 27 wild adzuki beans were selected and phenotyped extensively for yield and yield-related traits at two different locations (Nanning and Nanyang, China). Ten agronomic and yield-related traits were scored, and the data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA), principal component analysis (PCA), correlation, and cluster analysis. Significant variation was observed for genotypes, locations, and genotype x environment interaction for most traits. Also, there were significant differences in the phenotypes among accessions of different germplasm types. The broad-sense heritability of traits studied ranged from 4.4% to 77.8%. The number of seeds per pod (77.8%), 100-seed weight (68.0%), and number of plant branches (63.9%) had a high heritability. A total of 10 traits were transformed into 3 comprehensive factors by principal component analysis, and the first three principal component factors contributed 72.31% of the total variability. Cluster analysis categorized the 475 adzuki bean accessions into five distinct groups. The results described in this study will be useful for adzuki bean breeders for the development of varieties with high end-use quality.

The exogenous application of ethylene or 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC), the biosynthetic precursor for ethylene, to plants decreases the capacity of the cell wall to extend, thereby inhibiting stem elongation. In this study, the mechanism by which the extensibility of cell walls decreases in ACC-treated azuki bean epicotyls was studied. ACC decreased the total extensibility of cell walls, and such a decrease was due to the decrease in irreversible extensibility. ACC increased the molecular mass of xyloglucans but decreased the activity of xyloglucan-degrading enzymes. The expression of VaXTHS4, which only exhibits hydrolase activity toward xyloglucans, was downregulated by ACC treatment, whereas that of VaXTH1 or VaXTH2, which exhibits only transglucosylase activity toward xyloglucans, was not affected by ACC treatment. The suppression of xyloglucan-degrading activity by downregulating VaXTHS4 expression may be responsible for the increase in the molecular mass of xyloglucan. Our results suggest that the modification of xyloglucan metabolism is necessary to decrease cell wall extensibility, thereby inhibiting the elongation growth of epicotyls in ACC-treated azuki bean seedlings.

Recent archaeological findings provide a hint on domestication of azuki (Vigna angularis var. angularis) in East Asia. This preliminary study investigates archaeological collections from various regions in Korea, China, and Japan, representing the long-term evolution (5300–1450 BP) of azuki. Changes in seed shapes show that cultural manipulation of azuki began as early as 5300–4800 cal. BP. Azuki beans from Neolithic contexts in Korea and Japan show a possible sign of morphological response to human management, at least 2000 years prior to the appearance of fully domesticated forms. Yabutsuru-azuki (V. angularis var. nipponensis), a conspecific progenitor of domesticated azuki, has been a supplementary diet and seed reserve for lean years in East Asia, and this tradition may have a long root to the mid Holocene. Archaeological evidence indicates the possibility of multiple origins of azuki, supporting recent phylogenetic data. A unique contribution of this research is its interdisciplinary attempt to examine both the biological and cultural processes of this staple legume domestication.

The present paper deals with the report on the potential of Vigna angularis var. nipponensis (Ohwi) Ohwi and H. Ohashi assembled from Northeastern hill region (NEH) of India. The total of four exploration missions were conducted in remote and highaltitude areas of Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram during 2011, 2016, 2017 and 2019 to confirm the occurrence, localities of new distribution and genetic resource study. Preliminary studies on seed germination and morpho-nutritional evaluation of seed of both cultivated and wild forms were also conducted. Conserving precious germplasm of this less represented wild relative of adzuki bean { Vigna angularis (Willd.) Ohwi and Ohashi} assumes great significance for its use in breeding and improvement of Vigna crop group.

Buriti oil (Mauritia flexuosa L.) is rich in carotenoids, mainly β-carotene, and has great value for application as a food, pharmaceutical, or cosmetic ingredient, as well as a natural pigment. Microencapsulation is a promising technique to protect compounds sensitive to degradation such as β-carotene. Materials composed of carbohydrates and proteins, such as azuki bean (Vigna angularis L.) and lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.) flours, are alternative matrices for microencapsulation, which additionally provide good amounts of nutrients. In combination with maltodextrin, the flours represent a protective barrier in stabilizing lipophilic compounds such as buriti oil for subsequent spray drying. In this work, the performance of mixtures of maltodextrin with whole azuki and lima bean flours was evaluated in the microencapsulation of buriti oil. The microcapsules showed good results for solubility (>80%), hygroscopicity (~7%), encapsulation efficiency (43.52 to 51.94%), and carotenoid retention (64.13 to 77.49%.) After 77 days of storage, the microcapsules produced maintained 87.79% and 90.16% of carotenoids, indicating that the powders have high potential for application as encapsulants in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Genetic differences between azuki bean (Vigna angularis var. angularis) and its presumed wild ancestor (V. angularis var. nipponensis) were resolved into QTL for traits associated with adaptation to their respective distinct habits. A genetic linkage map constructed using progenies from a cross between Japanese cultivated and wild azuki beans covers 92.8% of the standard azuki bean linkage map. A reciprocal translocation between cultivated and wild azuki bean parents was identified on the basis of the linkage map having a pseudolinkage group and clustering of seed productivity-related QTL with large effect near the presumed breakpoints. In total, 162 QTL were identified for 46 domestication-related traits. Domestication of azuki bean has involved a trade-off between seed number and seed size: fewer but longer pods and fewer but larger seeds on plants with shorter stature in cultivated azuki bean being at the expense of overall seed yield. Genes found related to germination and flowering time in cultivated azuki bean may confer a selective advantage to the hybrid derivatives under some ecological conditions and may explain why azuki bean has evolved as a crop complex in Japan.

The adzuki bean is a mature seed of the red bean leguminous plant, and people like to eat it because of its nutritious properties and moderate proportion of amino acids. Adzuki bean germination and the enrichment of GABA greatly improve the health effects of the adzuki bean. The effects of the GABA-rich adzuki bean on the expression of insulin-pathway-related genes and proteins in the liver of T2DM mice were studied via Western blotting and qPCR. The results showed that a GABA-rich adzuki bean diet could promote glycogen synthesis in the liver of T2DM mice, inhibit the activities of PEPCK and G-6-Pase, and significantly down-regulate the gene expression levels of PEPCK, G6PC and FOXO1 (p < 0.05) and the phosphorylation levels of FOXO1 and GSK3β. In addition, it can also up-regulate the expression of the AMPKα gene and down-regulate the expression of the SREBP1c gene to inhibit the synthesis of triglycerides and cholesterol in T2DM mice. Lipid accumulation in mice can alleviate glucose and lipid metabolism disorders and play an effective role in regulating blood glucose at liver tissue targets. This study suggested that the GABA-rich adzuki bean can improve hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetic mice by activating the IRS/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in the liver.

BACKGROUND: The objective of this study was to dissect into quantitative trait loci (QTLs) the large morphological and physiological differences between cultivated azuki bean (Vigna angularis) and a wild relative and to infer the commonalities of the QTLs for domestication-related traits across the Asian Vigna and with other warm-season legumes. METHODS: Two linkage maps, for the BC₁F₁ and F₂ populations, respectively, from the same cross between azuki bean and V. nepalensis were developed. Using these linkage maps QTLs for 33 domestication-related traits were analysed and mapped. The location of mapped QTLs was compared with locations of similar QTLs in other warm-season legumes. KEY RESULTS: QTLs were detected for seed-, pod-, stem- and leaf-related traits. Most traits were controlled by between two and nine QTLs but several traits, such as pod dehiscence, were controlled by single genes. QTLs for domestication-related traits were restricted to particular regions of the azuki bean genome, especially linkage groups 1, 2, 4, 7 and 9. Linkage groups 1 and 2 had QTLs for a suite of traits including pod size, germination, seed size and lower stem length. QTLs on linkage groups 7 and 9 were associated with upper stem length, maximum leaf size and pod and seed size. Pleiotropy or close linkage of genes for domestication-related traits is suggested in these regions. While some QTLs are common to azuki bean and other warm-season legumes, many are recorded for the first time in azuki bean. CONCLUSIONS: QTLs for a large number of domestication-related traits have been mapped for the first time in azuki bean. QTLs with unexpected effect and new QTLs for traits such as seed size have been found. The results provide a foundation that will be useful for improvement of azuki bean and related legumes.