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"Wang, Yangming, 1472-1529."
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Friendship and filial piety in Ming Neo-Confucianism
This article discusses friendship and filial piety in Ming Neo-Confucianism, particularly the
Yangming
learning. I argue that the Yangming
jianghui
provided important social settings for elevating the value of friendship. True friendship was considered as a means for moral improvement, and to prevent the risk of moral subjectivism in the
Yangming
philosophy.
I also revisit the question of whether Ming Neo-Confucians did challenge the order of the five cardinal relationships by elevating friendship as the most important one. Through the investigation of filial piety in imperial culture and the
Yangming
learning, I emphasize that filial piety was not only the basis of socio-political order, but also the essence of the true self. The importance of friendship lies in its capacity to aid moral cultivation and to become a better self. It could never surpass that of filial piety. It remained a supplement to familial ethics.
Journal Article
United Under the Dao: Facets of Integration Between Wang Yangming and Daoism
This article examines the interactions between Wang Yangming’s School of Mind and Daoist traditions, focusing on specific instances of contact, adaptation, and reinterpretation. Drawing on both historically attested events and later hagiographical narratives—treated here as cultural representations rather than literal biographies—the study traces how Wang encountered Daoist religious sites, imagery, and technical vocabulary over the course of his life. Particular attention is given to parallels between Wang’s use of concepts such as liangzhi (innate moral knowledge) and Daoist terms from inner alchemy, as well as his adaptation of practices like stillness-sitting (jingzuo) and the metaphor of “forming the sacred embryo” (jie shengtai). The analysis shows that these elements were selectively reframed within his own intellectual framework, often shifting their emphasis from physical cultivation or longevity to moral and practical self-cultivation. Such a reorientation may have something to do with the Jingming Sect 淨明道. By situating Wang’s reinterpretations within the broader religious and philosophical environment of early sixteenth-century China, the article contributes to a more nuanced understanding of cross-tradition engagement and the circulation of ideas between Confucianism and Daoism.
Journal Article
Temporal Experience in Wang Yangming's Doctrine 'Liangzhi Xianzai'
Wang Yangming's saying \" liangzhi xianzai \" has been widely misread to suggest that liangzhi is already complete and perfect, need not and cannot be developed. I argue that \"xianzai\" means \"to be still present\" and connotes that something still remains and needs protection. \" Liangzhi xianzai \" is a dictum instructing learners to engage in moral actions according to liangzhi here and now, and to cut off the calculative mindset about the past and future. Liangzhi is not a timeless substance. It has a special mode of temporality. Yangming's military activities, calligraphy, and philosophical sayings together show that he appreciates the esthetic, moral, and spiritual exercise of immersing oneself in the present moment. Daoism and Chan Buddhism challenged Confucianism by offering a mystical experience of time. In response, Yangming transformed Chan Buddhist \"nothought\" to explore a Confucian approach to temporal consciousness. This observation changes the conventional narrative about how Chan Buddhism influenced Yangming.
Journal Article
The Debate on the Chinese and Western Concepts of Hell in the Ming and Qing Dynasties
The introduction of Christian culture to China during the late Ming Dynasty marked a pivotal moment in Sino–Western cultural exchanges. Jesuit missionaries, adhering to a strategy of aligning with Confucianism while rejecting Buddhism, encountered significant challenges in gaining acceptance. Their discourse on “hell” provoked opposition from both Confucian scholars and Buddhists. This paper focuses on key missionary works from the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, specifically Tianzhu shilu 《天主实录》 (True Record of the Lord of Heaven), Tianzhu shiyi 《天主实义》 (The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven), Sanshan lunxue 《三山论学》 (The Records of Debate in Fuzhou), Tianzhu shengjiao shilu 《天主圣教实录》 (True Record of the Sacred Teachings Concerning the Lord of Heaven) and Kouduo richao 《口铎日抄》 (Diary of Oral Admonitions). Exploring this notable cultural controversy and analyzing the intricate process of rejection and acceptance within this cultural collision will undoubtedly provide special insights into deepening our understanding of different religions’ beliefs about the afterlife and facilitating dialogue among civilizations.
Journal Article
Human and World: Fichte and Wang Yangming on the Highest Good
In comparative philosophy, the study of Fichte and Wang Yangming has been largely overlooked. This article compares their views on the highest good and their approaches to the human–world relationship. Fichte sees the highest good as the realization of practical reason, achievable through religious faith and love for God, enabling individuals to transcend sensual desires and unify with God. Religious faith connects individuals to a higher existence, fostering moral actions. Wang Yangming, however, defines the highest good as the manifestation of conscience within, emphasizing internal cultivation and moral practice to achieve the unity of knowledge and action. Fichte’s approach relies on religious faith, while Wang Yangming’s focuses on self-cultivation. This study reveals the complementarity between Chinese and Western perspectives on the highest good, offering a new lens for cross-cultural dialogue and insights into the complex relationship between humans and the world.
Journal Article
The trouble with Wang Yangming
The revered Confucian Wang Yangming has received much attention in recent years, not only because his compelling life story and philosophy deservedly attract it, but also because President Xi Jinping has openly expressed admiration for him. Building on the foundation of his grassroots popularity and historical and philosophical significance, the government of China has actively encouraged learning from the Ming Dynasty scholar-official. However, the political implications of his tenets and conduct as a Ming official have long been the subject of heated debate, one that remains relevant today. This essay reviews the revival of Yangmingism in China and explores the meaning of it.
Journal Article
Wang Yangming’s Concept of Oneness from the Perspective of Mysticism
Wang Yangming’s emphasis on the concept of oneness establishes a significant connection between his philosophy and mysticism. This comparative study draws upon his mystical encounters and conceptual framework. Although “all things form one body” appears to be a typical formula of extrovertive mysticism, his doctrine is more inclined to be classified as a type of introvertive mysticism because of the special definition of “thing” and the deep involvement of heart–mind. The realm of oneness is based on the mode of a heart–mind pervading the entirety of the universe and all things, with the core concept of liangzhi as both pure consciousness and the base of the world. The adoption of a mystical philosophical perspective highlights Wang’s theory of oneness as a spiritual philosophy, transcending general ethical claims, thus enriching our understanding of Wang’s philosophy of mind.
Journal Article
Rethinking Moral Responsibility: The Case of the Evil-Natured Tyrants in Confucian Thought
In general, the justification for the divine punishment in the Christian cosmos hinges on the notion of free will. Despite doctrinal complexities involving sin, grace, and divine sovereignty, individuals are held morally responsible for choosing evil over good. According to an ancient Chinese legend, however, the tyrant King Zhou (11th C. BCE) who lost his throne due to a changed mandate from Heaven was born with extreme evil tendencies. But if his evilness was determined before his birth and all his evil deeds are consequences of his natural tendencies, what might justify his punishment? Through an examination of Confucian responses to this question, this essay argues that Confucians did not ground moral responsibility in volitional freedom but rather in the extremity of one’s moral conduct. Their framework reveals a distinctive form of compatibilism—one in which blame is assigned not on the basis of freedom to choose otherwise but on how radically one’s actions deviate from shared ethical expectations. This suggests that the assumption of free will as a necessary condition for moral responsibility may reflect culturally specific intuitions, rather than a universal moral standard.
Journal Article
Neo-Confucianism and the Development of German Idealism
This article analyzes the influence of Chinese Neo-Confucianism on the development of German idealism. Information obtained by Leibniz from Jesuit missionaries included key concepts in Neo-Confucian philosophy that not only confirmed Leibniz’s belief in the universality of his organic image of the cosmos but also influenced Leibniz’s later writings. Such influence is also exhibited in Kant’s work, especially in his crucial noumenon-phenomenon distinction, as well as in Hegel’s phenomenology and philosophy of history. Recognition of these influences, unacknowledged by either Kant or Hegel, enhances our assessment of the import of both Neo-Confucianism and German idealism in international religio-philosophical discourse.
Journal Article