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Tick control mainly depends on using chemical acaricides that have led to the emergence of resistant tick populations along with environmental hazards. Natural alternatives including essential oils are now widely used to avoid the undesirable effects of chemicals on human, animals and environment. In this study, three commercial oils (myrrh, patchouli, and cypress) and their nanoemulsions (NEs) were tested against Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato unfed adults. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS) were used to characterize the nanoemulsions. Four concentrations with three replicates were used in the bioassay of oils and NEs against ticks using an adult immersion test. Furthermore, a toxicity study of the three oils and their NEs using normal fibroblast cells (BJ-1) was performed. TEM revealed particle size ranges from 29 to 211 nm with spherical droplets. The droplet size and polydispersity index were (29.30 nm & 0.367), (211.6 nm & 0.221) and (164.2 nm & 0.237) for myrrh NE, patchouli NE, and cypress NE, respectively. Myrrh and patchouli oils recorded high acaricidal activity followed by cypress oil with LC 50 value 5 days after treatment of 9.01, 12.40, and 15.21%, respectively. The acaricidal efficacy of oil was potentiated in the NEs form which was proved by the reduction in LC 50 values that were recorded 7 days after treatment 4.17, 8.57, and 5.04%, for myrrh, patchouli, and cypress NE, respectively. As an alternative for lab animals, we applied the cytotoxicity of myrrh, patchouli, and cypress on normal fibroblast cells. The oils showed low cytotoxic activity of 10.6, 21.5, and 23.6% for Myrrh, Patchouli, and Cypress, respectively. The nanoemulsion was revealed to be safe for normal cells up to a concentration of 0.62% (cytotoxicity%= 24.4, 34.4, and 16.3%, respectively), and the moderate cytotoxic effect appeared at around a concentration of 1.25% (cytotoxicity%= 42.2%, 57.0%, and 36.8% respectively). In conclusion, the three oils and their NEs have good acaricidal activity against Rhipicephalus sanguineus unfed adults. Further toxicity studies on mammals are needed to ensure the safe use of these formulations for the control of ticks on infested animals.

The current work evaluated the efficacy of 10 commercial acaricides in different pHs (4.5, 5.5, and 6.5) in laboratory (adult immersion tests (AIT), pH evaluation over time) and field assays (tick counts and efficacy). In the AIT ( n =70), higher efficacies were obtained when the acaricide emulsion had a more acidic pH (4.5), mainly for two combinations of pyrethroids + organophosphate (acaricide 3 and acaricide 9). For amidine, a higher pH (6.5) showed a higher efficacy. Over time, there was a trend in the pH of these emulsions increasing. When the efficacy of chlorpyrifos + cypermethrin + piperonyl butoxide (acaricide 3) at different pHs was evaluated over time (0, 6, 12, and 24h) by AIT, the less acidic pH (6.5) showed a strongly variation in the acaricide efficacy range. The mean pH of the water samples from different regions of Brazil was 6.5. In the field, the association of pyrethroid + organophosphates (acaricide 9) with pH of 4.5 and 5.5 were more effective in tick control than the emulsion prepared with this same spray formulation at pH 6.5. The pH of the acaricide emulsions is an important point of attention and is recommended that the veterinary industry start to develop/share information regarding how the pH can affect the acaricide efficacy.

The poultry red mite (PRM), Dermanyssus gallinae , a potential vector of pathogens to animals and humans, causes impaired bird welfare. A study investigated changes in behavioural variables, physiological biomarkers, and health parameters following acaricidal treatment of PRM infestation of laying hens on a commercial farm. Mite traps determined the challenge to 12,700 hens before and after drinking water administration of the acaricide, fluralaner (Exzolt ® , 0.5 mg/kg; Weeks 0 and 1). Weekly daytime direct observations and night-time video recordings monitored bird behaviours from Weeks -6 through +6. Blood samples were collected from randomly-selected birds (Weeks -6, -1, and +6). Following treatment, mite count reductions (>99%) were statistically significant ( P < 0.0001), as were night-time reductions in the percent of hens showing activity, preening, head scratching (all P < 0.0001), and head shaking ( P = 0.0007). Significant daytime reductions were observed in preening and head scratching (both P < 0.0001), head shaking ( P = 0.0389), severe feather pecking ( P = 0.0002), and aggressive behaviour ( P = 0.0165). Post-treatment, comb wounds were significantly reduced ( P = 0.0127), and comb colour was significantly improved ( P < 0.0001). Heterophil/lymphocyte ratio was significantly reduced at Weeks 1 and 6 ( P = 0.0009 and P < 0.0001, respectively). At Week 6, blood corticosterone ( P = 0.0041) and total oxidant status ( P < 0.0001) were significantly reduced, and haemoglobin and mean corpuscular haemoglobin significantly increased ( P < 0.0001). Farm production records indicated that those post-treatment improvements were accompanied by significant reductions in weekly mortality rate ( P = 0.0169), and significant recovery in mean weekly egg weights ( P < 0.0001) and laying rate (P < 0.0001). The improvements in behavioural variables, physiological biomarkers, and health parameters that were observed following the elimination of PRM on a commercial farm indicate that infestations can be a cause of reduced hen welfare.

The acaricide propargite has been widely used for over 50 years without significant resistance issues. Addressing to the propargite defects of poor crop safety, thirty-six novel halogenated propargite analogues were designed, synthesized, and characterized using 1 H NMR, 13 C NMR spectroscopy, and HRMS. All target compounds were screened for activity against adult Tetranychus cinnabarinus (spider mites) and Myzus persicae (aphids). Two compounds exhibiting higher insecticidal activity were further evaluated for crop safety on cowpea seedlings. Structural modifications, such as replacing the tert -butyl group on the propargite benzene ring with chlorine or trifluoromethoxy, and substituting the propargyl group with fluorinated alkyl groups (e.g., 2-fluoroethyl or 3,3,3-trifluoropropyl), significantly enhanced both acaricidal and aphicidal activity. Compound 5.16 demonstrated superior acaricidal activity (LC 50 : 14.85 mg L -1 ) on Tetranychus cinnabarinus and excellent crop safety on cowpea seedlings. Additionally, Compound 5.32 exhibited both acaricidal (LC 50 : 14.32 mg L -1 ) and aphicidal activity, which is unusual in this chemical class. The compounds 5.16 and 5.32 could be used as promising leads for the discovery of novel acaricides or insecticides.

The poultry red mite, Dermanyssus gallinae , has been described for decades as a threat to the egg production industry, posing serious animal health and welfare concerns, adversely affecting productivity, and impacting public health. Research activities dedicated to controlling this parasite have increased significantly. Their veterinary and human medical impact, more particularly their role as a disease vector, is better understood. Nevertheless, red mite infestation remains a serious concern, particularly in Europe, where the prevalence of red mites is expected to increase, as a result of recent hen husbandry legislation changes, increased acaricide resistance, climate warming, and the lack of a sustainable approach to control infestations. The main objective of the current work was to review the factors contributing to this growing threat and to discuss their recent development in Europe. We conclude that effective and sustainable treatment approach to control poultry red mite infestation is urgently required, included integrated pest management.

We evaluated the relative effectiveness of the natural product acaricide Essentria IC3 and the entomopathogenic fungal acaricide BotaniGard ES to suppress host-seeking Ixodes scapularis Say and Amblyomma americanum (L.) nymphs when applied with low-pressure backpack and high-pressure sprayers. Essentria IC3 applied by backpack sprayer out-performed high-pressure applications, while the opposite was true for treatments with BotaniGard ES. We were unable to demonstrate consistently greater efficacy using high-pressure applications, and neither of the acaricides or application methods provided substantial (>90%) levels of control at 7 days postapplication.

Hawthorn spider mite, Amphitetranychus viennensis Zacher, one of the most damaging arthropod pests for Rosaceaous fruit trees and ornamentals, has developed resistance to most of the commercially available acaricides. To understand the molecular basis of acaricide resistance, a standardized protocol for real-time quantitative reverse transcription PCR (RT-qPCR) following the MIQE (minimum information for publication of quantitative real time PCR experiments) guidelines is needed. In this study, we screened for the internal references in A. viennensis to study in acaricide resistance. In total, 10 candidate reference genes, including EF1A, 28S rRNA, 18S rRNA, α-tubulin, Actin3, RPS9, GAPDH, V-ATPase B, RPL13, and V-ATPase A, were assessed under the treatments of four commonly used acaricides with distinct mode-of-actions (MOAs). Based on the Insecticide Resistance Action Committee MOA classification, avermectin, bifenazate, spirodiclofen, and fenpropathrin belong to group 6, 20D, 23, and 3A, respectively. The expression profiles of these candidate genes were evaluated using geNorm, Normfinder, BestKeeper, and ΔCt methods, respectively. Eventually, different sets of reference genes were recommended for each acaricide according to RefFinder, a comprehensive platform integrating all four above-mentioned algorithms. Specifically, the top three recommendations were 1) 28S, V-ATPase A, and Actin 3 for avermectin, 2) GAPDH, RPS9, and 28S for bifenazate, 3) Actin 3, V-ATPase B, and α-tubulin for spirodiclofen, and 4) Actin 3, α-tubulin, and V-ATPase A for fenpropathrin. Although unique sets of genes are proposed for each acaricide, α-tubulin, EF1A, and GAPDH are the most consistently stably expressed reference genes when A. viennensis was challenged chemically. Our findings lay the foundation for the study of acaricide resistance in the phytophagous mites in general, and in the hawthorn spider mite, A. viennensis, in particular.

Rhipicephalus microplus , a tick species, causes significant economic losses in livestock and presents control challenges due to the emergence of resistance to conventional acaricides. This underscores the urgent need for effective and eco-friendly alternatives. This study evaluates the acaricidal potential of Cirsium arvense using adult immersion and larval packet tests. In silico molecular docking techniques were employed to identify biologically active compounds within C. arvense . Using Chem-Draw Ultra software (version 12.0.2, 2010), we illustrated 25 compounds derived from the plant, which were subsequently tested as ligands in docking experiments against Subolesin. Among the tested compounds, Apigenin 7-O-glucosideand Pectolinarigenin 7-glucoside exhibited significant inhibitory effects on Subolesin, with docking scores of -6.6 and − 6.3 kcal/mol, respectively. In contact bioassays using Cirsium arvense extract, various concentrations (2.5, 5, 10, 20, and 40 mg/mL) were evaluated. The results indicated an LC50 of 2.907 mg/mL and an LC90 of 47.725 mg/mL after 24 h of exposure. Notably, at the highest concentration of 40 mg/mL, the extract significantly reduced egg-laying activity in adult female ticks, yielding an oviposition index of 0.09 ± 0.02, which corresponds to a 75.68 ± 0.44% reduction in reproductive capacity. Additionally, larval mortality reached 88.33 ± 2.90%, indicating that higher concentrations not only increased larval mortality but also substantially decreased the reproductive capacity of the ticks. These findings suggest that bioactive components from Cirsium arvense show promise as candidates for the control of R. microplus . Further research is warranted to evaluate their efficacy as alternative or complementary strategies to synthetic acaricides.

Background Cupressus sempervirens is one of the conifer plants, that is used as an antimicrobial, antioxidant, anthelminthic, and many other health purposes. Rhipicephalus annulatus is one of the hard tick genera affecting the production and health of domestic animals in Egypt. Extensive use of chemical acaricides in the management of ticks caused acaricide resistance, environmental contamination, residues in meat and milk, and harmful effects on non-target species. For these reasons, there is an urgent need to create efficient, environmentally friendly acaricides. This work aimed to assay the essential oils and establish the phytochemical analysis of C. sempervirens extract, its effects against the semi-engorged females of R. annulatus , and discuss their possible control effects. Results Using the spray-dip method by C. sempervirens ethanol, methanol, distal water, and chloroform extracts at different concentrations (10–50%), revealed a decrease in the percentage of mobile female R. annulatius ticks, and increased mortality proportionally with days after treatments (14 days) and/or extract concentrations (10–50%). The ethanol extracts showed their strongest acaricidal effect, where the female mortality percentage reached 100% using all concentrations at the end of the examined period. In addition, the estimated LC 50 and LC 95 of C. sempervirens ethanolic extract were recorded as the lowest values (12.2% and 17%, respectively) after 14 days of treatment compared with other extract types. The 50% ethanolic extract of C. sempervirens (the most effective one) revealed the presence of bioactive metabolites i.e. flavonoids, tannins, and carbohydrates (TSS). Also, its total antioxidant capacity and potential free-radical activity (DPPH) were estimated. Using GC-MS, the extracted oil revealed the presence of four major compounds i.e., Eicosapentaenoic acid (50.85%), 10,12-Docosadiynedioic acid (27.58%),10-Undecynoic acid (14.28%) and Palmitic acid (5.42%). The efficiency of all phytochemicals and essential oils was discussed in the current study. Conclusion The phytochemicals and essential oils found in C. sempervirens could enhance our understanding and help in developing potential strategies for controlling ticks in general and for R. annulatus , in particular, using environmentally friendly agents.

Two-spotted spider mite (TSSM), Tetranychus urticae Koch is a devastating polyphagous mite causing considerable economic loss. Acaricides are showered in crops to manage this pest. The pest is known for developing resistance to several classical acaricides. The study was aimed at the exploration of botanical acaricide for the management of TSSM, T. urticae . Adulticidal action of ethyl acetate, ethanol and water extracts of leaves of Sesbania grandiflora (Fabaceae) were tested on T. urticae . The results showed that ethyl acetate extract showed the maximum mite mortality of 94.44 per cent, followed by ethanol extract at 87.78 per cent at 5 per cent concentration. LC 50 of ethyl acetate and ethanol extracts were 1.00 and 4.19 per cent, respectively. The aqueous extract gave 94.44 per cent mortality at a very high concentration of 15% with LC 50 of 8.57%. Molecules from the GC-MS analysis of S. grandiflora ethyl acetate leaf extract were subjected to molecular docking using acetylcholine esterase as the target molecule. The major phytomolecules identified in the ethyl acetate leaf extract of S. grandiflora were stigmasterol (15.45%), phytol (13.60%), beta-amyrone (8.72%), and squalene (7.51%). Squalene, a biomolecule with the lowest binding energy was selected from the docking result. The toxicity of squalene was evident from the fact that it caused 81.11, 85.55 and 87.78 per cent mortality at 1800, 2000 and 2200 ppm, respectively at 48 h after treatment. After, 72 h, 100 per cent mortality was recorded at 1800 ppm. This study reveals that squalene can be formulated and used as the best alternative to tackle T. urticae .