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Agroforestry (AF) is a sustainable land use practice and system that increases the ecosystem services delivery from agricultural lands compared with treeless systems. Agroforestry can be considered a practice when linked to plot scale (silvoarable, silvopasture, homegarden, woody linear landscape strips, and forest farming), and a system when associated with the global farm scale. The enhancement of the ecosystem services is associated with the use and promotion of the biodiversity caused by the presence of trees that optimizes the use of the resources if adequate species are mixed. Agroforestry can be implemented at temporal and spatial scales. At the temporal scale, the use of woody perennials to increase soil fertility is a traditional technique that improves soil health and reduces the need of using herbicides (e.g., the legume Ulex sown for 10 years in between crop cultivation). Five agroforestry practices can be implemented at the plot level: silvopasture, silvoarable/alley cropping, homegardens/kitchengardens, woody linear landscape strips, and forest farming. A farm including these practices is considered an agroforestry system working at the landscape level when several farms are mixed. In spite of the acknowledgment that AF has at the European level for being included as part of Pillars I and II, the spread of AF is limited across Europe. Four challenges, linked with technical, economic, educational, and policy development, have been identified by the AFINET thematic network that, if addressed, may foster policy adoption across the EU. This article proposes 15 different policy recommendations to overcome them and the need of developing an AF strategy for the EU.

Background and aims Agroforestry systems combining trees with crops or pastures have been widely used to reduce water, soil, and nutrient losses and associated water pollution from agricultural lands in both temperate and tropical regions. However, reviews on improvement/efficiency and the scope of such reductions by soil, management, climate, and hydrological processes are limited. Methods This paper synthesized the available evidence on the reduction in surface runoff, soil erosion, nutrient, and pollutant losses (e.g., herbicides, pesticides, and antibiotics) to quantify the effectiveness of agroforestry systems on water quality improvement based on published studies. Results On average, agroforestry systems reduced surface runoff, soil, organic carbon, and related nutrient losses by 1–100%, 0–97%, –175–92%, and –265–100%, respectively, with average values of 58%, 65%, 9%, and 50%, respectively. They also lowered herbicide, pesticide, and other pollutant losses by –55–100% (49% on average). Conclusions Reduction efficiency of agroforestry systems is site-dependent and varies widely depending on different biophysical factors. A comprehensive science-based review is needed to generalize agroforestry design and site adaptability for water and soil conservation where climatic, geographical, ecological, and socio-economic conditions are relatively similar in the world.

Agroforestry is recommended as a more sustainable practice in areas with increased population pressure and land scarcity. Several factors limit farmers’ ability to make decisions regarding agroforestry practices. Considering this, the current study was conducted in the Sodo Zuria district of the Wolaita Zone to determine the determinants of farmers' adoption of agroforestry practices. A stratified random sampling procedure was used to select an optimal sample size of 173 respondents from the three study sites. A structured interview schedule was used to collect quantitative data from the respondents. The checklist was used to collect qualitative data from non-sampled respondents in the community through focus group discussions, personal observations, and key informant interviews. The study's conceptual framework was based on the theory of planned behavior. The collected data were analyzed using inferential and descriptive statistics, such as the chi-square test and the t-test. According to the logistic regression analysis, the adoption of agroforestry practices was positively influenced by land size, farmland erosion, education, awareness, and extension services, which should be considered in all initiatives to promote agroforestry as a strategy to achieve integrated rural development in the study areas.

Urban agroforestry has emerged as a critical strategy for enhancing food security and ecological resilience in rapidly urbanizing African cities. Yet, empirical insights into its practice, constraints, and contributions remain limited, particularly in secondary cities like Kumasi, Ghana. This study employs a convergent mixed-methods design to investigate the forms, drivers, and outcomes of urban agroforestry across four administrative units within the Greater Kumasi Metropolitan Area. Guided by the Urban Political Ecology (UPE) framework and informed by FAO’s multidimensional concept of food security, data were collected from 100 purposively selected practitioners using semi-structured questionnaires and analyzed through both statistical and thematic techniques. Results reveal three dominant agroforestry systems, scattered trees, home gardens, and boundary plantings, whose adoption patterns are significantly influenced by age, education, land tenure security, and access to extension services. Fruit-bearing trees constituted over 60% of cultivated species, directly enhancing household food availability, while 64% of practitioners sold surplus produce, indicating strong economic linkages. However, widespread institutional constraints, including insecure tenure, lack of market access, and limited extension services, undermine broader adoption and system intensification. These findings highlight the multifaceted role of urban agroforestry in reconciling food, livelihood, and environmental goals in African cities, and underscore the need for integrated urban policy frameworks that secure land, expand extension coverage, and strengthen market linkages. By centering Kumasi, a historically green but under-researched urban landscape, this study offers nuanced insights critical for regional urban sustainability and agroecological planning.

Aims Termites function as “soil engineers” in tropical agroforestry ecosystems. However, of their role in phosphorus (P) cycling little is known. We aimed to investigate the impact of termite activity on soil aggregate stability and P fractions at the aggregate level in a tropical rubber plantation. Methods Fungus-growing termite mounds (active and abandoned) involving both above- and belowground locations were studied in a 24-year-old rubber stand. The mass percentage and stability of aggregates, P fractions contents and other major chemical properties of soil aggregates were measured. Aggregate-associated P preservation capacity was also calculated. Results More aggregates < 1 mm in size were concentrated in active aboveground mounds than active belowground chambers, thus resulting in weaker stability and erosion resistance, whereas the opposite trend occurred in abandoned mounds. The concentrations of labile P (in > 2 mm aggregate size), moderately labile P (0.25–1 mm), and non-labile P (0.053–1 mm) in active aboveground mounds were significantly higher than other types. The changes in specific P forms enriched TP i in aggregates > 2 mm and TP o in 0.053–1 mm size of active aboveground mounds relative to others, implying the importance of P o storage in microaggregates induced by termite activity involved in long-term P transformation. Furthermore, middle-sized (0.25–2 mm) aggregates stored more P and represented the highest P storing capacity, especially for active belowground chambers. Conclusions These results suggest that in the presence of termite activity, P cycling is greatly enhanced in aboveground mounds despite the poor aggregate stability, whereas P forms are stable after mound abandonment, except for a higher H 2 O-P i concentration aboveground. Our study provides an important reason why mound soils can be considered as fertility amendments for agroforestry practices in P-deficient tropical soils.

Conspicuous trees and other perennial plants in smallholders’ farms have been acknowledged for their biodiversity conservation values. Impacts of agroforestry practices, elevation gradients, wealth status on perennial plant composition, diversity, and structure were empirically assessed. Four agroforestry practices were considered, namely, dispersed trees in perennial crops, homesteads, boundary plantations, and woodlots. In all, 540 sample plots were randomly selected and surveyed. A total of 138 perennial plant species belongs to 113 genera and 62 families were identified and recorded. Of the species, 79% were trees, 18% shrubs, and 3% non-woody perennials. Also, 83% of identified plant species were native. A substantial proportion of the species (71%) were naturally regenerated. The highest native woody plant species were found in homesteads (75%) and the least in woodlots (15%). Dimensionality in species compositions across agroforestry practices was graphically displayed using none-metric multidimensional scaling and there were significant differences (p < 0.001). Species richness was significantly highest in homesteads (72.3 ± 3.5), while Shannon diversity (2.5 ± 0.2) in boundary plantation (p < 0.001). Middle altitude and rich households had harbored significantly the highest species richness, Shannon diversity index, and Simpson evenness index (p < 0.05). The general linear model showed the primary interactions of determinants had significantly positive effects on biodiversity values (p < 0.001). The study reveals agroforestry interventions should consider agroforestry practices, socioeconomic settings, elevation gradients, and interactions among them in favoring or disfavoring the growing of native perennial plant species on the agricultural landscape in the central highland of Ethiopia and beyond in the tropics.

Agroforestry is recognized as a sustainable land use practice. However, the uptake of such a promising land use practice is slow. Through this research, carried out in a Terai district of Nepal, we thoroughly examine what influences farmers’ choice of agroforestry adoption and what discourages the adoption. For this, a total of 288 households were surveyed using a structured questionnaire. Two agroforestry practices were compared with conventional agriculture with the help of the Multinomial Logistic Regression (MNL) model. The likelihood of adoption was found to be influenced by gender: the male-headed households were more likely to adopt the tree-based farming practice. Having a source of off-farm income was positively associated with the adoption decision of farmers. Area of farmland was found as the major constraint to agroforestry adoption for smallholder farmers. Some other variables that affected positively included livestock herd size, provision of extension service, home-to- forest distance, farmers’ group membership and awareness of farmers about environmental benefits of agroforestry. Irrigation was another adoption constraint that the study area farmers were faced with. The households with a means of transport and with a larger family (household) size were found to be reluctant regarding agroforestry adoption. A collective farming practice could be a strategy to engage the smallholder farmers in agroforestry.

The conversion of an agroforestry based agricultural system to a monocropping farming system influences the distribution and composition of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). The aim of this paper was to analyze AMF species diversity, spore density, and root colonization across different agroforestry practices (AFP) in southern Ethiopia. Soil and root samples were collected from homegarden, cropland, woodlot, and trees on soil and water conservation-based AFP. AMF spores were extracted from the soil and species diversity was evaluated using morphological analysis and root colonization from root samples. The AMF spore density, root colonization and composition were significantly different among the AFP ( P  < 0.05). In this study, 43 AMF morphotypes belonging to eleven genera were found, dominated by Acaulospora (32.56%), followed by Claroideoglomus (18.60%). Home gardens had the highest spore density (7641.5 spore100 g − 1 dry soil) and the lowest was recorded in croplands (683.6 spore100 g − 1 dry soil). Woodlot had the highest root colonization (54.75%), followed by homegarden (48.25%). The highest isolation frequency (63.63%) was recorded for Acaulospora scrobiculata . The distribution of AMF species and diversity were significantly related to soil total nitrogen and organic carbon. The homegarden and woodlot AFP were suitable for soil AMF reserve and conservation. Article highlights The homegarden and woodlot agroforestry practices are the best alternative mechanisms for conservation of soil AMF biodiversity. The agroforestry practices that are known with high surface vegetation cover results in conservation of soil AMF. The agricultural practices such as scattered trees on farm-based systems with intensive tillage impacts soil AMF communities.

Agroforestry systems have been recognized for their high carbon (C) capture but vary across agroforestry practices and elevation gradients. Four distinct traditional agroforestry practices namely, dispersed trees in perennial crops, homesteads, boundary plantations, and woodlots, under smallholdings along elevation gradients were assessed. Using stratified random sampling, 540 sample quadrats in three elevations were randomly selected for biomass carbon stocks accounting. In addition, 180 sample quadrats were randomly selected for litters, fine roots, and soil organic carbon assessment. Litters and fine roots carbon stocks were determined based on loss-on-ignition and soil organic carbon (0–30 cm and 30–60 cm) determined using Walkley–Black method. The mean (± sd) biomass carbon stock in the boundary plantation was significantly (p < 0.001) higher by 64, 80, and 91% than woodlots, dispersed trees in perennial crops, and homesteads, respectively. The mean (± sd) ecosystem carbon stock (in biomass, litters, fine roots, and soil) in boundary plantation was significantly (p < 0.001) higher by 71, 64, and 47% than homesteads, dispersed trees, and woodlots, respectively. Litters and fine roots biomass carbon stocks showed insignificant contributions to ecosystem carbon stocks, valued 0.4 and 1.9%, respectively. Ecosystem carbon stock was significantly (p < 0.001) higher at the upper and middle elevations than the lower elevation. Observation on the interactions between elevation gradients and agroforestry practices did not show significant effect. Future attempts in agroforestry designs for tree intensifications and enhanced ecosystem carbon stocks should take into account the various distinct agroforestry practices and elevation gradients.

In Colombia, one-third of the land is devoted to cattle farming, which is one of the main drivers of deforestation, land degradation, loss of biodiversity, and emissions of greenhouses gases. To mitigate the environmental impacts of cattle farming, agroforestry practices have been extensively promoted with mixed results. Despite research and extension efforts over the last 20-year period, agroforestry systems still involve a complex knowledge process among stakeholders that needs to be addressed. To understand the drivers of cattle farmers’ behavior with regard to adopting agroforestry practices, we apply a double hurdle regression for different social, economic and productive information to capture the decision to adopt and the intensity of the adoption as a joint decision of such practices. For this purpose, we use data from a survey (implemented as part of an international project) administered to 1605 cattle farmers located in five agro-ecological regions in Colombia. Our dependent variables are defined by the adoption of four agroforestry practices: scattered trees, trees and shrubs for forage production, forestry plantations, and management of native forest. The adoption decision of agroforestry practices was influenced by the access and use of credit, location, and the implemented livestock system. Herd size and participation in development projects that involved tree planting had a positive influence on the adoption and intensity of agroforestry practices, while the variable associated with presence of water springs tended to boost the intensity of adoption. The diffusion of these technologies might be increased among farmers who have adopted and who are potential adopters, and social capital and networking can play a crucial role in spreading agroforestry as sustainable practice.