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Donkey
Donkeys have historically been among our most useful domesticated animals--from plowing fields to navigating difficult terrain; however, they have been much maligned in popular culture and given very little respect. Jill Bough champions this humble creature, proving that after 10,000 years of domestication, this incredibly hard-working animal deserves our appreciation. With accounts that are both fascinating and touching, this cultural history of the donkey will inspire a new respect and admiration for this essential creature.
Book
The Donkey in Human History
Donkeys were probably the first animals people rode and the first used on a large-scale as beasts of burden. Yet they are one of the least studied of all domestic animals. This book seeks to remedy this by using archaeological evidence in combination with historical and anthropological sources to resituate donkeys in the unfolding of human history.
eBook
An evaluation of the in vitro antioxidant and antidiabetic potentials of camel and donkey milk peptides released from casein and whey proteins
In this study, some biological activities including antioxidant activity (DPPH radical scavenging activity, ABTS radical scavenging activity, and CUPRAC assay), DPP-IV enzyme inhibitory activity, and α-glucosidase enzyme inhibitory activity of peptides released from in vitro gastrointestinal digested casein and the whey proteins of camel and donkey milk were evaluated. While the highest antioxidant activity was determined to be in the digested camel casein fraction using the ABTS and CUPRAC methods, the digested donkey casein fraction was determined to have the highest radical scavenging activity using the DPPH method. The highest DPP-IV inhibitory activity was detected in digested camel and donkey milk casein fractions. Digested whey fractions of camel and donkey milk had a lower DPP-IV inhibitory activity compared to the digested casein fractions. However, digested whey fractions of camel and donkey milk did not show α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, and digested donkey casein fraction showed the highest α-glucosidase inhibitory activity with a 12.5 µg/mL IC50 value. It was concluded that peptides released from digested casein fraction of camel and donkey milk have potent antioxidant and particularly antidiabetic properties.
Journal Article
Estimation of bioactive peptide content of milk from different species using an in silico method
This study assessed the bioactive peptides content of milk from different species, including humans, camel, bovine, buffalo, donkey, sheep, goat, and horse. The highest and lowest concentrations of total digestion-resistant peptides were estimated in sheep and human milk. Donkey milk casein contains a higher angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory, dipeptidyl peptidase III (DPP-III) inhibitory, DPP-IV inhibitory, and antioxidant peptides. On the other hand, camel whey protein contains the highest ACE-inhibitory peptides. To discover BPs with immunomodulatory and cholesterol-lowering functions, goat milk casein and sheep milk whey protein can be considered, respectively.
Journal Article
A metabolomics comparison in milk from two Dezhou donkey strains
Due to its similarity with human milk, donkey milk is gaining interest as a nutritional milk source. The aim of current study was to compare the difference in the milk composition and metabolites of two Dezhou donkey strains (SanFen and WuTou). The results showed that fat, total solids, and solids-not fat of SanFen milk were higher than WuTou milk. Then we further identified the metabolites in the donkey milk by untargeted metabolomics using LC–MS, and showed that 49 significantly different metabolites between two milk samples were detected. 36 metabolites in the SanFen were significantly higher (p < 0.05), while 13 metabolites were significantly lower than the WuTou (p < 0.05). The results indicated that some different metabolites, such as l-glutamate, and l-glutamine, glucose, and choline, might be ascribed to the genetic differences of the two Dezhou donkey strains. The significantly different metabolites (SDM) were mainly enriched in arginine biosynthesis, d-glutamine and d-glutamate metabolism, alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism, and starch and sucrose metabolism. This is the first comparative study performed in SanFen and WuTou and indicates that stains differentially affect the milk composition and metabolites. Furthermore, the SDM and metabolic pathways at least partly explore the regulation mechanisms related to different milk quality and lactation traits between two donkey strains.
Journal Article
Current Knowledge on Functionality and Potential Therapeutic Uses of Donkey Milk
The increase of knowledge on the composition of donkey milk has revealed marked similarities to human milk, which led to a growing number of investigations focused on testing the potential effects of donkey milk in vitro and in vivo. This paper examines the scientific evidence regarding the beneficial effects of donkey milk on human health. Most clinical studies report a tolerability of donkey milk in 82.6–98.5% of infants with cow milk protein allergies. The average protein content of donkey milk is about 18 g/L. Caseins, which are main allergenic components of milk, are less represented compared to cow milk (56% of the total protein in donkey vs. 80% in cow milk). Donkey milk is well accepted by children due to its high concentration of lactose (about 60 g/L). Immunomodulatory properties have been reported in one study in humans and in several animal models. Donkey milk also seems to modulate the intestinal microbiota, enhance antioxidant defense mechanisms and detoxifying enzymes activities, reduce hyperglycemia and normalize dyslipidemia. Donkey milk has lower calorie and fat content compared with other milks used in human nutrition (fat ranges from 0.20% to 1.7%) and a more favourable fatty acid profile, being low in saturated fatty acids (3.02 g/L) and high in alpha-linolenic acid (about 7.25 g/100 g of fat). Until now, the beneficial properties of donkey milk have been mostly related to whey proteins, among which β-lactoglobulin is the most represented (6.06 g/L), followed by α-lactalbumin (about 2 g/L) and lysozyme (1.07 g/L). So far, the health functionality of donkey milk has been tested almost exclusively on animal models. Furthermore, in vitro studies have described inhibitory action against bacteria, viruses, and fungi. From the literature review emerges the need for new randomized clinical trials on humans to provide stronger evidence of the potential beneficial health effects of donkey milk, which could lead to new applications as an adjuvant in the treatment of cardiometabolic diseases, malnutrition, and aging.
Journal Article
A rapid HPLC method for the determination of lactoferrin in milk of various species
This Research Communication describes the adaptation and testing of an RP-HPLC method, previously tested for the determination of lactoferrin (LF) in whey, for its applicability to determine milk lactoferrin content. Milk samples of various species, namely, ovine, caprine, bovine, donkey and human milk, were tested. The advantage of this RP-HPLC method includes speed and convenience, as it does not include extensive pretreatment or separation steps. A simple pre-treatment step was added in order to remove fat and proteins of the casein family and the samples were tested. The results varied in terms of elution of the LF peak both between the milk of the different species as well as from the initial application on whey. The peak resolution was satisfactory in the cases of ovine, bovine and donkey milk samples while for caprine and human milk an interference with other peaks was observed. Nevertheless, quantification of LF was found possible for all samples. This new application of the modified method will allow the determination of LF in milk samples of the tested species either for everyday analysis or as a useful qualitative screening for presence or absence of LF.
Journal Article
Domestication of the donkey: Timing, processes, and indicators
Domestication of the donkey from the African wild ass transformed ancient transport systems in Africa and Asia and the organization of early cities and pastoral societies. Genetic research suggests an African origin for the donkey, but pinpointing the timing and location of domestication has been challenging because donkeys are uncommon in the archaeological record and markers for early phases of animal domestication are hard to determine. We present previously undescribed evidence for the earliest transport use of the donkey and new paleopathological indicators for early phases of donkey domestication. Findings are based on skeletal data from 10 [almost equal to]5,000-year-old ass skeletons recently discovered entombed in an early pharaonic mortuary complex at Abydos, Middle Egypt, and a concurrent study of 53 modern donkey and African wild ass skeletons. Morphometric studies showed that Abydos metacarpals were similar in overall proportions to those of wild ass, but individual measurements varied. Midshaft breadths resembled wild ass, but midshaft depths and distal breadths were intermediate between wild ass and domestic donkey. Despite this, all of the Abydos skeletons exhibited a range of osteopathologies consistent with load carrying. Morphological similarities to wild ass show that, despite their use as beasts of burden, donkeys were still undergoing considerable phenotypic change during the early Dynastic period in Egypt. This pattern is consistent with recent studies of other domestic animals that suggest that the process of domestication is slower and less linear than previously thought.
Journal Article
The Donkey Milk in Infant Nutrition
During this period, donkey milk begins to be used regularly for breastfeeding. [...]the XX century, donkey milk was sold to feed orphaned babies, debilitated children, sick people, and elders. Yvon et al. also observed that donkey milk consumption exerts anti-inflammatory properties by normalizing antimicrobial peptides levels in Paneth’s cells, so the authors speculate about its possible use as dietetic intervention in patients with Crohn’s disease. [...]recent data suggest that donkey colostrum and mature milk inhibit the growth and metastasis of mouse 4T1 tumors by inducing apoptosis. [...]anticancer properties could be hypothesized for the future as well. [...]the two studies of Peila et al. demonstrated no difference for the donkey-milk-derived fortifier compared to standard bovine-derived fortifier regarding long-term auxological and neurodevelopmental outcomes [3,4].
Journal Article
Household Rituals and Merchant Caravanners: The Phenomenon of Early Bronze Age Donkey Burials from Tell eṣ-Ṣfi/Gath, Israel
Most studies of ritual and symbolism in early complex societies of the Near East have focused on elite and/or public behavioural domains. However, the vast bulk of the population would not have been able to fully participate in such public displays. This paper explores the zooarchaeological and associated archaeological evidence for household rituals in lower-stratum residences in the Early Bronze Age (EB) of the southern Levant. Data from the EB III (c. 2850–2550 BCE) deposits excavated at the site of Tell eṣ-Ṣfi/Gath, Israel, are illustrative of the difficulty in identifying the nature of household rituals. An integrated analytical approach to the architecture, figurines, foundation deposits, and domestic donkey burials found in lower-stratum domestic residences provides insights into the nature of household rituals. This integrated contextual perspective allows the sacred and symbolic role(s) of each to be understood and their importance for EB urban society to be evaluated.
Journal Article