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Camellia japonica bee pollen is one of the major types of bee pollen in China and exhibits antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. The aims of our study were to evaluate the effects and the possible mechanism of Camellia japonica bee pollen polyphenols on the treatment of hyperuricemia induced by potassium oxonate (PO). The results showed that Camellia japonica bee pollen ethyl acetate extract (CPE-E) owned abundant phenolic compounds and strong antioxidant capabilities. Administration with CPE-E for two weeks greatly reduced serum uric acid and improved renal function. It inhibited liver xanthine oxidase (XOD) activity and regulated the expression of urate transporter 1 (URAT1), glucose transporter 9 (GLUT9), organic anion transporter 1 (OAT1), organic cation transporter 1 (OCT1) and ATP-binding cassette superfamily gmember 2 (ABCG2) in kidneys. Moreover, CPE-E suppressed the activation of the toll-like receptor 4/myeloid differentiation factor 88/nuclear factor-κB (TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB) signaling pathway and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome in PO-treated mice, and related inflammatory cytokines were reduced. CPE-E also modulated gut microbiota structure, showing that the abundance of Lactobacillus and Clostridiaceae increased in hyperuicemic mice. This study was conducted to explore the protective effect of CPE-E on hyperuricemia and provide new thoughts for the exploitation of Camellia japonica bee pollen.

The research represents first scientific exploration into pectinase-assisted enzymatic hydrolysis of bee pollen, targeting its structurally resilient exine and intine layers. The disruption of these stable layers is crucial in promoting the nutrient release (amino acids, bioactive compounds, and minerals) and potentially broadening its applicability in numerous food formulations. Response surface methodology ascertained that optimal parameters for effectively disintegrating bee pollen cell walls are an enzyme concentration of 0.26%, a pH of 4.6, a temperature of 48.7℃ and hydrolysis time of 12 h with protein dispersibility index, wall-breaking rate, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity, and total phenolic content as the response variables. Furthermore, the artificial neural network model (R 2  = 0.99) successfully validated the experimental data obtained from response surface methodology, ensuring robust predictive accuracy. The scanning electron micrographs of pectinase optimized bee pollen (PEOP) demonstrated complete disruption of cell wall. Subsequent analysis demonstrated a marked increase in crude lipid content (12.43 ± 0.19%), protein (32.14 ± 0.28%), water holding capacity (1.95 ± 0.02%), emulsifying activity (65.58 ± 1.35%) compared to untreated bee pollen. Significant increase was also observed in essential amino acids (1.5 times), minerals (1.1 times), in vitro digestibility of PEOP with reduced thermal stability. Minimum alterations in functional group and degree of crystallinity confirms the integrity of the PEOP, ensuring its suitability as a functional food supplement. Therefore, the results strongly establish that pectinase hydrolysis is a productive approach to disrupt bee pollen cell wall for maximising the nutrient release, and bioavailability hence, paving the way for the utilization of fragmented nutrient-rich bee pollen in diverse food applications.

The aim of the present study was to address the effect of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) on bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity of Nelumbo nucifera (Lotus) bee pollen (LBP). The total phenolic contents (TPC) and free amino acids were determined and flavonoid composition was identified by UPLC-Triple-TOF-MS. Five analytical methods including DPPH, ABTS, reducing power, FRAP, and silver nanoparticles antioxidant capacity were used for the antioxidant activity analysis. The results revealed a significant increase in the TPC and free amino acid compositions after HHP treatment. The DPPH, ABTS, reducing power, FRAP, and AgNPAC of the extracted fractions were augmented by over 13.94, 2.9, 2.68, 85, and 2.6 times, respectively. PCA analysis showed a strong correlation between TPC, some distinct flavonoids, and antioxidant activities. These results indicated that HHP enhances the antioxidant activity of LBP via increase in amino acids, TPC, and some flavonoids such as Licoagrone, Kuwanon K, Cyanidin 3-rutinoside, etc.

This study obtains the sensory description of different botanical bee pollen (BP) profiles and shows the differences between dried and fresh-frozen BP organoleptic characterization. Fifty-four (n=54) samples of fresh-frozen (n=27) and dried (n=27) BP pellets were analyzed for botanical and descriptive sensory aspects. The palynological results identified unifloral (Echium sp.), bifloral (Citrus sp. and Cistus sp.), and polyfloral (Leguminoseae, Rosaceae, and Myrtaceae families) BP. The use of Hierarchical Cluster Analysis revealed that four different groups were separated, corresponding to all dried BP, fresh-frozen Echium sp., fresh-frozen polyfloral and fresh-frozen Citrus sp. and Cistus sp. Discriminant Analysis returned satisfactory results as 83.3% of all BP samples were correctly classified. No classification for different botanical origin in dried BP samples was possible based on their sensory properties. However, all fresh-frozen BP samples were differentiated according to their sensory profile coinciding with the results of the Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The first two discriminant functions explained 94% of the variance. The sensory profile for fresh-frozen BP was defined and the classification precision was also achieved. On the contrary, all samples that went under drying treatment presented the same sensory profile. These results suggested that sensory profile could be used as predictor to classify fresh-frozen BP based on its botanical origin.

Significant pesticide residues are among the most serious problems for sustainable agriculture. In the beekeeping environment, pesticides not only impact a honey bee's survival, but they also contaminate bee products. Taiwan's agricultural environment has suffered from pesticide stress that was higher than that found in Europe and America. This study deciphered problems of pesticide residues in fresh honey bee pollen samples collected from 14 monitoring apiaries in Taiwan, which reflected significant contaminations within the honey bee population. In total, 155 pollen samples were screened for 232 pesticides, and 56 pesticides were detected. Among the residues, fluvalinate and chlorpyrifos showed the highest concentrations, followed by carbendazim, carbaryl, chlorfenapyr, imidacloprid, ethion, and flufenoxuron. The average frequency of pesticide residues detected in pollen samples was ca. 74.8%. The amounts and types of pesticides were higher in winter and in southwestern Taiwan. Moreover, five of these pollen samples were contaminated with 11–15 pesticides, with average levels between 1,560 and 6,390 µg/kg. Compared with the literature, this study emphasized that pollen gathered by honey bee was highly contaminated with more pesticides in Taiwan than in the America, France, and Spain. The ubiquity of pesticides in the pollen samples was likely due to the field applications of common pesticides. Recently, the Taiwanese government began to improve the pesticide policy. According to the resurvey data in 2016, there were reductions in several pesticide contamination parameters in pollen samples from west to southwest Taiwan. A long-term investigation of pollen pesticide residues should be conducted to inspect pesticides usage in Taiwan's agriculture.

Due to numerous bioactive constituents, both bee pollen (BP) and bee bread (BB) represent valuable food supplements. The transformation of BP into BB is a complex biochemical in-hive process that enables the preservation of the pollen’s nutritional value. The aim of this study was to determine the depth of the honeycomb cells in which bees store pollen and to provide a spectral insight into the chemical changes that occur during the BP-to-BB transformation process. This study was carried out on three experimental colonies of Apis mellifera carnica, from which fresh BP was collected using pollen traps, while BB samples were manually extracted from the cells two weeks after BP sampling. The samples were analyzed using infrared (FTIR-ATR) spectroscopy, and the depth of the cells was measured using a caliper. The results showed that the average depth of the cells was 11.0 mm, and that the bees stored BB up to an average of 7.85 mm, thus covering between ⅔ and ¾ (71.4%) of the cell. The FTIR-ATR analysis revealed unique spectral profiles of both BP and BB, indicating compositional changes primarily reflected in a higher water content and an altered composition of the carbohydrate fraction (and, to a lesser extent, the lipid fraction) in BB compared to BP.

Colitis is a chronic disease associated with alterations in the composition of gut microbiota. Schisandra chinensis bee pollen extract (SCPE) has been proved to be rich in phenolic compounds and effective in modulating gut microbiota, but its effect on colitis and the underlying mechanism remains unclear. This study investigates the relationship between colitis amelioration and the gut microbiota regulation of SCPE via fecal microbial transplantation (FMT). The results showed that administration of 20.4 g/kg BW of SCPE could primely ameliorate colitis induced by dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) in mice, showing as more integration of colon tissue structure and the colonic epithelial barrier, as well as lower oxidative stress and inflammation levels compared with colitis mice. Moreover, SCPE supplement restored the balance of T regulatory (Treg) cells and T helper 17 (Th17) cells. Gut microbiota analysis showed SCPE treatment could reshape the gut microbiota balance and improve the abundance of gut microbiota, especially the beneficial bacteria (Akkermansia and Lactobacillus) related to the production of short-chain fatty acids and the regulation of immunity. Most importantly, the protection of 20.4 g/kg BW of SCPE on colitis can be perfectly transmitted by fecal microbiota. Therefore, the gut microbiota–SCFAS–Treg/Th17 axis can be the main mechanism for SCPE to ameliorate colitis. This study suggests that SCPE can be a new promising functional food for prevention and treatment of colitis by reshaping gut microbiota and regulating gut immunity.

We have studied a preventive effect of polyphenol-rich bee pollen ethanol extract (EEP) against histological changes in the liver and cardiac blood vessels, abnormalities of lipid profile, and the levels of oxidized low density lipoproteins (ox-LDL), asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA), angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), and angiotensin II (ANG II) caused by a high-fat diet in C57BL6 mice. Supplementing the diet with EEP in the doses of 0.1 g/kg body mass (BM) and 1 g/kg BM resulted in a decrease of total cholesterol by 31% and 35%, respectively. It also decreased the level of low density lipoproteins by 67% and 90%, respectively. No differences in the levels of high density lipoprotein and triacylglycerols were observed. EEP reduced the level of ox-LDL by 33% and 47%, ADMA by 13% and 51%, ACE by 17% and 30%, as well as ANG II by 11% and 15% in a dose-dependent manner, which proves a protective effect of EEP in a high-fat diet. EEP reduces and/or prevents hepatic steatosis and degenerative changes caused by a high-fat diet in C57BL6 mice, which indicates its hepatoprotective effect. EEP used with standard feed does not disturb a normal concentration of the assayed parameters.

Bee pollen is known as a natural health food and its complex cell wall limits release of its bioactive compounds. In the present study, effectiveness of different pretreatments based on ball milling and ultrasonication on nutritional values, physico–chemical properties and antimicrobial activity of the pollen were evaluated. Results indicated that using ball milling treatment, protein, saccharose, glucose, fructose, lipid, moisture and ash in the prepared amorphous pollen powder with monodispersed particles and prolate-oval shape, could significantly (p < 0.05) increase up to 57.66, 88.31, 41.04, 274.57, 12.67, 53.08 and 66.47%, as compared to the pollen. Elemental analysis also demonstrated that weight% of the Potassium, Calcium, Iron, Nickel, Selenium and Barium in the prepared pollen powder were higher than those in the pollen. Furthermore, GC-MS analysis indicated that while, there were 64 bioactive compounds in the pollen, those were increased into 119, 136 and 161 using ball milling, ultrasonication and ultrasonication-ball milling, respectively. Results also indicated that pretreated pollen using ultrasonication-ball milling had highest antioxidant (93.91%I), total phenol content (45.02 mg/mL), and antimicrobial activity, based on diameter of the formed clear zone, against Escherichia coli (20 mm), Staphylococcus aureus (23 mm), Listeria monocytogenes (22 mm), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (8), Candida albicans (21 mm) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (20 mm). The present study provided a foundation for research on the potential application of pretreated pollen and the development of dietary supplements and functional foods.

Camellia bee pollen (CBP) is a major kind of bee product which is collected by honeybees from tea tree (Camellia sinensis L.) flowers and agglutinated into pellets via oral secretion. Due to its special healthcare value, the authenticity of its botanical origin is of great interest. This study aimed at distinguishing CBP from other bee pollen, including rose, apricot, lotus, rape, and wuweizi bee pollen, based on a non-targeted metabolomics approach using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry. Among the bee pollen groups, 54 differential compounds were identified, including flavonol glycosides and flavone glycosides, catechins, amino acids, and organic acids. A clear separation between CBP and all other samples was observed in the score plots of the principal component analysis, indicating distinctive metabolic profiles of CBP. Notably, L-theanine (864.83–2204.26 mg/kg) and epicatechin gallate (94.08–401.82 mg/kg) were identified exclusively in all CBP and were proposed as marker compounds of CBP. Our study unravels the distinctive metabolic profiles of CBP and provides specific and quantified metabolite indicators for the assessment of authentic CBP.