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We explore the external validity of a common pool resource (CPR) laboratory experiment. The experimental subjects were artisanal fishers who exploit benthic resources on the coast of Chile. A first set of subjects was recruited from fishers’ unions that comanage their resources through territorial user right areas. These unions differ in their performance, which is largely the outcome of the cooperative efforts of their members. A second set of subjects was recruited among nonunionized fishers who do not participate in the comanagement system. They fish exclusively in open-access areas and barely cooperate in their fishing. Membership of a union and the union’s performance in comanagement were related to the subjects’ behavior in the laboratory. In the CPR experiment, members of high-performance unions showed high cooperation with each other, while members of low-performance unions cooperated significantly less. Nonunionized fishers did not cooperate at all. We also explored how the weak external enforcement of an individual quota can trigger changes in behavior, what we refer to as internalizing the norm. Only the members of high-performance unions internalized the norm. They refrained from overfishing until the end of the game, even though the sanction for exceeding the quota was not strong enough to be dissuasive from the point of view of pure self-interest. This study provided insight on the experimental analysis of cooperation in artisanal fisheries and suggested that the capacity to internalize norms is important to the sustainable exploitation of artisanal fisheries common pool resources.

Comanagement success relies on the proper administration of resources and on the capacity of users to establish and maintain positive social relationships with multiple actors. We assessed multifunctional relationships of small-scale artisanal fisher organizations engaged in a coastal benthic resources comanagement system in Chile to explore bridging and linking social capital, using an egocentric network approach. The formal leaders of 38 small-scale fisher organizations were surveyed to investigate (1) similarities and differences in social capital among fisher organizations and regions, and (2) possible effects of social capital levels on comanagement performance. Results show that the best performing fisher organizations are those with higher levels of linking and bridging social capital. Positive and strong correlations exist between linking social capital levels and comanagement performance variables. Importantly, fisher organizations considered to manage resources successfully consistently presented high levels of linking social capital, irrespective of variability in bridging social capital. Using egocentric networks allows understanding actors’ differences in the comanagement social structure, thus providing critical insights for improving comanagement systems.

The management based on the allocation of Territorial Use Rights for Fisheries (TURF) is a mechanism used to achieve the sustainable development of the activity and its fisheries. In Chile, the measure began in the late 1990s, and after 30 years, it remains uncertain whether its implementation has achieved this goal. The objective of the present study is to evaluate the historical performance of the MEABR regime across biological, economic, and administrative dimensions. To achieve this, objectives for each dimension were defined in collaboration with the administrative professionals of the regime, leading to the identification of eight evaluation indicators. The performance results indicate that, in general, during the period from 1998 to 2020, the MEABR regime has met institutional objectives at an “acceptable” level in the biological, economic, and administrative dimensions. Specifically, regarding resource performance, it is observed that species such as loco, sea urchin, and the macroalgae kelps have seen increased initial densities within the areas; however, ecological conditions remain below acceptable levels, generating uncertainty about the future state of these resources. The study identifies the level of success of the regime and proposes strategies to reduce gaps to achieve sustainability objectives.

Recent studies have highlighted the relational nature of co-management and investigated which kinds of social network structures define its possibilities to perform, adapt and deal with uncertainty and change. However, there is less understanding about the impacts of disasters and abrupt perturbations on co-management networks. Here we present a social network analysis of the impacts of the 2010 tsunami on co-management in the Chilean fishery. Based on data collected in 21 fisher organizations in the Bio-Bío region, heavily impacted by the tsunami, we assess whether and how co-management facilitating and hindering social relationships have changed after the event, as compared to 16 non-impacted organizations in the Valparaíso region. Baseline data (i.e., 2008) from both regions allows for before-after longitudinal analysis. Our findings show that after the tsunami, co-management networks in Bio-Bío present reduced fragmentation and higher levels of perceived trust among actors in comparison to the non-affected region. A slightly lower tendency towards decentralization was also observed. These findings suggest that post-disaster adjustments have occurred within the same networks. Co-management networks were flexible enough to be rewired as a consequence of abrupt perturbations triggered by the tsunami. Participatory network-based interventions, such as the Chilean MEABR co-management policy, provide a stable and at the same time adaptive setting to respond to coastal disasters.

Territorial use rights in fisheries (TURF) are considered to aid to the sustainability of small-scale fisheries, because they remove the perverse incentives, which sustain the tragedy of the commons. Nevertheless, a comprehensive evaluation of the implementation of TURFs is lacking. Chile offers a unique opportunity, because an extensive system for benthic fisheries has been implemented, with at present hundreds of TURFs along the coast. This study analyzes the sustainability of all the TURFs (109) along a stretch of 800 Km of coast, using population, productive, economic, social and institutional indicators. The information was obtained from the technical reports and monitoring each TURF has to prepare for the authority each year, databases the authority has and interviews with artisanal fishermen. Three states of TURFs were identified: unsustainable, poorly sustainable and sustainable. The resources exploited in the analyzed TURFs are the chilean abalon or “loco” (Concholepas concholepas), the key hole limpets “lapa negra” (Fissurella latimarginata), and “lapa rosada” (Fissurella cumingi), the kelps “huiro negro” (Lessonia berteroana), and “huiro palo” (Lessonia trabeculata), the surf clam “Macha” (Mesodesma donacium), the scallop “ostión del norte” (Argopecten purpuratus) and the seaurchin “erizo rojo” (Loxechinus albus). Results show general low performance for population, production and economic indicators, but good performance for social and institutional indicators. Overall the system shows a poor sustainability, which principally means unstable populations, landings and income in most of the TURFs. This result, which differs from most published analyses of the system, is explained mainly by the impossibility to reach a stable fishery through management of so small areas, given the natural variability of the species and the general environment. The good performance of some TURFs cannot be explained by a single factor, which is consistent with the complexity of the system, which makes it little amenable for proper management.

To combine the rational use of marine benthic resources and economic development of small-scale fishers, Chile passed legislation in 1991 establishing a comanagement policy that grants exclusive territorial user rights for fisheries (TURFs) to artisanal fisher organizations in well-defined inshore coastal areas, known as Management and Exploitation Areas for Benthic Resources (MEABRs). In general the policy has been proclaimed a management and economic success because benthic resource abundances have increased inside MEABRs in comparison with open-access areas. However, there is a lack of studies assessing the impact of this management policy on nontargeted subtidal species and community assemblages and the policy's implications for biodiversity and conservation. This study starts to fill this gap and links the allocation of TURFs for benthic resources with add-on conservation benefits for species that are not directly linked with the fishery policy. Comparative subtidal surveys inside vs. outside MEABRs were used to assess the effects of three MEABRs on managed targeted benthic species, biodiversity (species richness), and community assemblages in central Chile. Surveys focused exclusively on subtidal kelp forest habitats dominated by Lessonia trabeculata, spanning 4-12 m in depth and with similar levels of habitat complexity. The study comprised: (1) quantification of kelp forest complexity, (2) understory survey of sessile species, (3) quantification of conspicuous benthic macro-invertebrates, including those under management, and (4) quantification of reef-fish species inside the kelp habitat. Results showed population enhancement of target-managed invertebrates inside MEABRs. Moreover, reef-fish species were significantly more diverse and abundant inside MEABRs, and community assemblages of nontarget benthic invertebrates and reef fish were significantly different inside vs. outside MEABRs. The comanagement of inshore benthic resources in Chile, through MEABRs aims for the sustainability of invertebrate and algae stocks. However, our study shows that this management tool, which in practice restricts access to the entire management area, provides important conservation add-on effects for species that are not the focus of the management policies. Therefore, in Chile, the hundreds of already established MEABRs could represent an important ancillary network, which complements the biodiversity objectives of fully protected areas such as no-take marine protected areas or others.

We examine decision-making, shared authority, and pluralism as key characteristics for the effective co-management of natural resources. Drawing on the concept of network governance, we complement this approach by studying localized practices of governance that support existing and compensate for missing aspects in the regulation. The regime of territorial use rights for fisheries (TURF) in Chile is a recognized example of large-scale co-management that has given rise to local organizations that manage and exploit benthic resources. Based on multi-sited qualitative fieldwork across five regions, we analyze practices with respect to two governance objects: the deterrence of illegal fishing and the periodic assessment of the fisheries’ biology fields. Our analysis shows that local fisher organizations have institutionalized informal practices of surveillance and monitoring to fill in the gaps of existing regulations. Although fisher organizations and consultants—the so-called management and exploitation areas for benthic resources (AMERB)—have managed to operate the TURF regime, they depend on the government to enforce regulations and receive public subsidies to cover the costs of delegated governance tasks. We suggest that governance effectiveness could benefit from delegating additional authority to the local level. This would enhance the supervision of productive areas and better adaptation of national co-management regulations to the specific geographical context.

Predator impacts on intertidal community structure have been studied for rocky platforms, but intertidal boulder fields, a habitat with a greater extension and heterogeneity, have not yet been considered. Keeping in mind that disturbances are considered an important force in determining intertidal habitat diversity, the aims of this work were to describe and quantify boulder field community structure and to assess boulder field community dynamics by proposing possible food webs, taking into consideration predatory and anthropogenic impacts. These aims were achieved by installing predator-exclusion cages outfitted with rocks that were monitored monthly over one year in two study zones, a Management and Exploitation Area for Benthic Resources (MEABR, Playa Chica) and open-access area (OAA, Playa Grande). For both study zones, juveniles were the dominant observed ontogenetic state and invertebrate richness and density were higher inside exclusion cages. Furthermore, the MEABR had a differentiated impact on community structure and dynamics in comparison with the OAA. In conclusion, the roles played by boulder fields in intertidal diversity, especially in recruitment and as a nursery zone, are important to consider in management plans.

The Chilean government has introduced a policy that gives formal property rights over defined areas of seabed to organized groups of artisanal fishers with the goal of achieving sustainable exploitation of natural resources. We assessed differences in the attitudes of participating artisanal fishers toward this form of management to understand their importance in the design and implementation of fisheries management. We used questionnaires and participatory rural appraisal techniques to survey members of six fishing management committees. Fishers' attitudes varied significantly among syndicates in three main domains: attitudes toward the environment, unresolved aspects behind the management area policy, and perceived benefits derived from adoption of the policy. These differences indicated the existence of distinct world views that structure fishers' behavior toward the marine environment and its management. In addition, the responses made by fishers correlated best with the degree of off-sector pluriactivity and their dependence on diving as a source of income. This suggested that a livelihood approach to the development of Chilean artisanal fisheries that considers the multiple economic niches of the fishers will be most effective in the implementation of dual conservation/management measures.

Stable isotopes of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) are commonly used to track resource flows through lake food webs. However, there remains a weak understanding of the spatial variation in isotopic composition of benthic resources and how this variation affects inference about energy flows among species. Boundary layers at the interface between benthic substrates and the overlying water column restrict diffusion of nutrients and carbon from the water column to benthic algae and may affect the isotopic composition of benthic algae as nutrient and CO 2 concentrations can become locally depleted in the benthic boundary layer. We quantified the variation in C and N stable isotope composition of benthic resources along a depth gradient in a large oligotrophic lake to assess the magnitude of change in stable isotope composition. Snails were increasingly depleted in 13 C with depth, by about 10 ‰ from 0 to 20 m, while 15 N in snails showed only subtle enrichment over this depth range. Sculpin ( Cottas aleuticus ) δ 13 C and δ 15 N signatures did not significantly change with depth and were more enriched in 15 N than would be expected from consumption of snails alone. A comparison of δ 13 C and δ 15 N values from sculpins relative to shallow and deep snails, and alternative prey (marine-derived salmon resources), within a mixing model suggested sculpins feed selectively on deep grazers in this system in addition to marine-derived resources provided by migrating sockeye salmon. This study illustrates the importance of accounting for depth-related variation in isotope patterns when assessing benthic resource contributions to food webs using stable isotope data.