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Tropical lowland rainforests are increasingly threatened by the expansion of agriculture and the extraction of natural resources. In Jambi Province, Indonesia, the interdisciplinary EFForTS project focuses on the ecological and socio-economic dimensions of rainforest conversion to jungle rubber agroforests and monoculture plantations of rubber and oil palm. Our data confirm that rainforest transformation and land use intensification lead to substantial losses in biodiversity and related ecosystem functions, such as decreased above- and below-ground carbon stocks. Owing to rapid step-wise transformation from forests to agroforests to monoculture plantations and renewal of each plantation type every few decades, the converted land use systems are continuously dynamic, thus hampering the adaptation of animal and plant communities. On the other hand, agricultural rainforest transformation systems provide increased income and access to education, especially for migrant smallholders. Jungle rubber and rubber monocultures are associated with higher financial land productivity but lower financial labour productivity compared to oil palm, which influences crop choice: smallholders that are labour-scarce would prefer oil palm while land-scarce smallholders would prefer rubber. Collecting long-term data in an interdisciplinary context enables us to provide decision-makers and stakeholders with scientific insights to facilitate the reconciliation between economic interests and ecological sustainability in tropical agricultural landscapes.

Plant invasions have consistently been shown to cause significant reductions in the diversity of recipient plant communities; an effect that can cascade through ecosystems to impact the stocks and flows of nutrients and energy as well as the diversity of higher trophic levels. However, the manner in which invasive plants alter ecosystem functioning and trophic interactions is highly variable can occur through the direct effects of the invader's abundance and its indirect effects via changes in community diversity. Understanding the nature of these interactions between plant invasion, community diversity and ecosystem functioning can provide insight for ecosystem managers. We evaluated whether plant invasion alters the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem function (BEF) by comparing BEF models that either include or subtract the diversity and function values associated with the invasive vine, Vincetoxicum rossicum. To do this, we (1) characterize V. rossicum within the functional trait space of the regional species pool, (2) assess how different components of plant biodiversity vary along a V. rossicum invasion gradient, and (3) examine how V. rossicum invasion affects BEF relationships and trophic interactions, both at the plot-scale and incrementally along a site-level invasion gradient. In general, we found that V. rossicum invasion was associated with significant declines in plant community diversity across a suite of biodiversity measures; a consequence of V. rossicum's functional trait structure (height and specific leaf area). We also found that V. rossicum invasion resulted in significantly greater productivity (i.e., dominance effects in the inclusion model), but also that the diversity of the remaining resident community was positively associated with productivity (i.e., niche complementarity in the subtraction model). Further, we observed that while the relationship between flower cover and pollinator diversity was positive for both the inclusion and subtraction models, this relationship was stronger in the absence of V. rossicum. Our findings suggest that while plant invasion can result in enhanced productivity via dominance effects, this comes at the cost of significant declines in diversity. However, it is also the case that remaining resident diversity can exhibit positive effects on multiple functions and support for higher trophic levels.

Species’ distributions are likely to be affected by a combination of environmental drivers. We used a data set of 11 million species occurrence records over the period 1970–2010 to assess changes in the frequency of occurrence of 673 macro‐moth species in Great Britain. Groups of species with different predicted sensitivities showed divergent trends, which we interpret in the context of land‐use and climatic changes. A diversity of responses was revealed: 260 moth species declined significantly, whereas 160 increased significantly. Overall, frequencies of occurrence declined, mirroring trends in less species‐rich, yet more intensively studied taxa. Geographically widespread species, which were predicted to be more sensitive to land use than to climate change, declined significantly in southern Britain, where the cover of urban and arable land has increased. Moths associated with low nitrogen and open environments (based on their larval host plant characteristics) declined most strongly, which is also consistent with a land‐use change explanation. Some moths that reach their northern (leading edge) range limit in southern Britain increased, whereas species restricted to northern Britain (trailing edge) declined significantly, consistent with a climate change explanation. Not all species of a given type behaved similarly, suggesting that complex interactions between species’ attributes and different combinations of environmental drivers determine frequency of occurrence changes. Synthesis and applications. Our findings are consistent with large‐scale responses to climatic and land‐use changes, with some species increasing and others decreasing. We suggest that land‐use change (e.g. habitat loss, nitrogen deposition) and climate change are both major drivers of moth biodiversity change, acting independently and in combination. Importantly, the diverse responses revealed in this species‐rich taxon show that multifaceted conservation strategies are needed to minimize negative biodiversity impacts of multiple environmental changes. We suggest that habitat protection, management and ecological restoration can mitigate combined impacts of land‐use change and climate change by providing environments that are suitable for existing populations and also enable species to shift their ranges.

Multiple land‐use change drivers affect, in most cases negatively, the biodiversity in species‐rich meadows. Empirical data that can help to disentangle the effects of individual drivers and quantify the time required for a biodiversity response are seldom available. Management decisions are often based on short‐term experiments or observational data. A 15‐year field experiment, comprising a factorial combination of fertilization, mowing and removal of the dominant species Molinia caerulea, was established in an oligotrophic wet meadow in Czech Republic. Each of the eight factorial combinations was replicated three times. Percentage cover for all species was monitored annually in 1‐m² plots and species' presence recorded in each cell of a continuous square grid of 25 cells (0·1 × 0·1 m each). These data enabled various scale‐dependent estimates of species richness. The species composition of individual treatment combinations diverged over time, particularly at the start of the experiment, and by the latter stages resembled various typical grassland communities from the surrounding landscape. Fertilization had the most pronounced effect, leading to a sharp decrease in species richness, most rapidly at the smallest spatial scale. Mowing had on average a positive effect on species richness and led in most cases to spatially homogeneous species composition. The removal of Molinia had a positive effect on species richness, especially in unmown unfertilized plots. The effects of each factor were dependent on the combination of the other two factors, and also on time, with some effects continuously increasing throughout and some diminishing by the end of the experiment. The process of competitive exclusion with fertilization and cessation of mowing was, in some treatment combinations, rather slow. Synthesis and applications. Land‐use change drivers act in combination, and their effects on the structure of species‐rich wet meadows are dependent on both the temporal and spatial scales considered. Short‐term experiments might underestimate the response of vegetation and thus provide erroneous conservation recommendations. Mowing was only effective in preventing species richness decline caused by fertilization in the short term. The presence of a single dominant species can modify the effectiveness of conservation measures.

As the Earth's biota enters the sixth great mass extinction event recorded in the history of the planet, it is predicted that the erosion of biodiversity will result in the reduction of the goods and services that ecosystems provide. To mediate the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem function associated with wood production in temperate forests in Europe, a near‐to‐nature strategy has been developed. Whether this strategy enables natural assembly mechanisms of fungi responsible for major ecosystem processes is unknown. We analysed variation in species richness and both the functional and phylogenetic structure of fungal assemblages of different trophic life histories (soil saprotrophic, wood saprotrophic, and ectomycorrhizal fungi) in 69 beech forest plots along a steep gradient of management intensity. We focused on reproductive traits to test the hypothesis that management intensity shifts community assembly mechanisms from limitations in niche overlap that promote the coexistence of dissimilar species to environmental filtering that selects for similar species. Specifically, we hypothesized that unpredictable resources in production forests filter the assemblages, promoting species with small fruit bodies and with small and elongated spores. As management intensity increased, functional diversity decreased from a random pattern to a clustered pattern, which indicated that management intensity increased the strength of environmental filtering. However, phylogenetic diversity increased from a random pattern to an overdispersed pattern. Combining phylogenetic diversity with functional diversity did not provide additional insight into the traits but revealed a contrasting pattern. Reproduction traits of the assemblages shifted, with a decrease in mean fruit body size and an increase in spore elongation. Synthesis and applications. Near‐to‐nature logging concepts are not able to mimic the major processes that shape fungal community assembly in protected forests. This could have severe consequences for important ecosystem functions provided by fungi. The phylogenetic overdispersion indicated that analyses of other traits in addition to reproductive traits are required to disentangle the factors affecting fungal community structure.

Summary Mixed‐species forests generally sequester and store more carbon in above‐ground woody biomass compared to species‐poor systems. However, the mechanisms driving the positive relationship between diversity and above‐ground wood production ( AWP ) remain unclear. We investigate the role of competition for light and water as possible sources of complementarity among Iberian pine and oak species. Using tree core data from permanent plots, we test the hypotheses that (i) contrasting abilities of pines and oaks to tolerate shade will promote AWP in mixtures, while (ii) drought stress results in less room for complementarity. We found that pine species receive more light, develop larger crowns and grow 138–155% faster when in mixture with oaks. However, this positive effect of species mixing on growth was severely reduced under drought conditions due to increased competition for water with neighbouring oaks. In contrast to pines, oak trees were less responsive to mixing, primarily as a result of their ability to tolerate shade and water shortage. Mixed pine‐oak forests produce an average 48% more above‐ground woody biomass compared to monocultures each year. However, the magnitude of the diversity effect on AWP fluctuates with time, decreasing noticeably in strength during drought years. Synthesis . Complementary light use strategies among neighbouring trees are critical in explaining why above‐ground wood production ( AWP ) increases in mixed‐species stands. In contrast, drought causes trees in mixture to compete more fiercely for below‐ground resources, leaving less room for complementarity and causing positive diversity effects to lessen in strength. Together, these two mechanisms provide much needed context for AWP –diversity relationships in Mediterranean forests. Whether or not managing for mixed pine‐oak forests proves to be beneficial for AWP is likely to depend on how climate changes in the Iberian Peninsula.

In the past, insect diversity in grasslands showed a severe decline due to management intensification or abandonment. In this study, we investigate the long‐term influence of grazing and the potential for spatial patterns created by different grazing intensities to enhance insect diversity. In a long‐term experiment (2002–2011), three grazing intensities were applied to 1‐ha paddocks in a triplicate block design: moderate grazing (MC), lenient grazing (LC) and very lenient grazing (VLC, since 2005). The experiment was conducted in a moderately species‐rich grassland at the edge of the Solling Uplands in Lower Saxony, Germany. Orthoptera (grasshoppers) and Lepidoptera (butterflies) on three 50‐m transects per paddock were counted in 2002–2004 and again in 2010 and 2011. Statistics were performed using linear mixed modelling. Grasshopper diversity measures (species richness and abundance) were significantly affected by grazing intensity; abundance increased from 2002 to 2011 more strongly in the LC than in the MC treatment. Butterfly species richness response to grazing intensity varied among years. Data from 2010 and 2011 did not reveal any advantage of the lowest grazing intensity (VLC) compared to the intermediate grazing intensity treatment (LC) in either insect group. Multiple regressions were used to investigate diversity patterns. Along with compressed sward height, spatial patchiness was important for grasshopper species richness and abundance as well as for butterfly species numbers. Butterfly abundance was mainly influenced by vertical sward height heterogeneity in addition to the significant effects of thistle abundance and number of nectar plant species. Synthesis and applications. Cattle grazing intensity affects the proportions and spatial heterogeneity of short and tall sward patches on pastures. The less mobile grasshoppers particularly benefitted from the structural modifications created by cattle at lenient grazing levels (stocking rate 1·14 SLU ha⁻¹, standard livestock unit (SLU) = 500 kg). In the final study years, areas with intermediate grazing intensity revealed high diversity indices and the most distinct patchiness, therefore a further reduction in grazing intensity is not recommended. This indicates that commercial livestock production may be compatible with conservation targets.

1. The mechanisms controlling soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) accumulation are crucial for explaining why soils are major terrestrial C sinks. Such mechanisms have been mainly addressed by imposing short-term, step-changes in CO₂, temperature and N fertilization rates on either monocultures or low-diversity plant assemblages. No studies have addressed the long-term effects of plant functional diversity (i.e. plant functional composition) on rates of soil C accumulation in N-limited grasslands where fixation is the main source of N for plants. 2. Here we measure net soil C and N accumulation to 1 m soil-depth during a 12-year-long grassland biodiversity experiment established on agriculturally degraded soils at Cedar Creek, Minnesota, USA. 3. We show that high-diversity mixtures of perennial grassland plant species stored 500% and 600% more soil C and N than, on average, did monoculture plots of the same species. Moreover, the presence of C4 grasses and legumes increased soil C accumulation by 193% and 522%, respectively. Higher soil C and N accrual resulted both from increased C and N inputs via (i) higher root biomass, and (ii) from greater root biomass accumulation to 60 cm soil depth resulting from the presence of highly complementary functional groups (i.e. C4 grasses and legumes). 4. Our results suggest that the joint presence of C4 grass and legume species is a key cause of greater soil C and N accumulation in both higher and lower diversity plant assemblages. This is because legumes have unique access to N, and C4 grasses take up and use N efficiently, increasing below-ground biomass and thus soil C and N inputs. 5. Synthesis. We demonstrate that plant functional complementarity is a key reason why higher plant diversity leads to greater soil C and N accumulation on agriculturally degraded soils. We suggest the combination of key C4 grass--legume species may greatly increase ecosystem services such as soil C accumulation and biomass (biofuel) production in both high- and low-diversity N-limited grassland systems.

A fundamental issue in microbial and general ecology is the question to what extent environmental conditions dictate the structure of communities and the linkages with functional properties of ecosystems (that is, ecosystem function). We approached this question by taking advantage of environmental gradients established in soil and sediments of small stream corridors in a recently created, early successional catchment. Specifically, we determined spatial and temporal patterns of bacterial community structure and their linkages with potential microbial enzyme activities along the hydrological flow paths of the catchment. Soil and sediments were sampled in a total of 15 sites on four occasions spread throughout a year. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) was used to characterize bacterial communities, and substrate analogs linked to fluorescent molecules served to track 10 different enzymes as specific measures of ecosystem function. Potential enzyme activities varied little among sites, despite contrasting environmental conditions, especially in terms of water availability. Temporal changes, in contrast, were pronounced and remarkably variable among the enzymes tested. This suggests much greater importance of temporal dynamics than spatial heterogeneity in affecting specific ecosystem functions. Most strikingly, bacterial community structure revealed neither temporal nor spatial patterns. The resulting disconnect between bacterial community structure and potential enzyme activities indicates high functional redundancy within microbial communities even in the physically and biologically simplified stream corridors of early successional landscapes.

Many ocean policies mandate integrated, ecosystem-based approaches to marine monitoring, driving a global need for efficient, low-cost bioindicators of marine ecological quality. Most traditional methods to assess biological quality rely on specialized expertise to provide visual identification of a limited set of specific taxonomic groups, a time-consuming process that can provide a narrow view of ecological status. In addition, microbial assemblages drive food webs but are not amenable to visual inspection and thus are largely excluded from detailed inventory. Molecular-based assessments of biodiversity and ecosystem function offer advantages over traditional methods and are increasingly being generated for a suite of taxa using a “microbes to mammals” or “barcodes to biomes” approach. Progress in these efforts coupled with continued improvements in high-throughput sequencing and bioinformatics pave the way for sequence data to be employed in formal integrated ecosystem evaluation, including food web assessments, as called for in the European Union Marine Strategy Framework Directive. DNA sequencing of bioindicators, both traditional (e.g., benthic macroinvertebrates, ichthyoplankton) and emerging (e.g., microbial assemblages, fish via eDNA), promises to improve assessment of marine biological quality by increasing the breadth, depth, and throughput of information and by reducing costs and reliance on specialized taxonomic expertise.