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Capsule networks (CapsNets), a new class of deep neural network architectures proposed recently by Hinton et al., have shown a great performance in many fields, particularly in image recognition and natural language processing. However, CapsNets have not yet been applied to drug discovery-related studies. As the first attempt, we in this investigation adopted CapsNets to develop classification models of hERG blockers/nonblockers; drugs with hERG blockade activity are thought to have a potential risk of cardiotoxicity. Two capsule network architectures were established: convolution-capsule network (Conv-CapsNet) and restricted Boltzmann machine-capsule networks (RBM-CapsNet), in which convolution and a restricted Boltzmann machine (RBM) were used as feature extractors, respectively. Two prediction models of hERG blockers/nonblockers were then developed by Conv-CapsNet and RBM-CapsNet with the Doddareddy's training set composed of 2,389 compounds. The established models showed excellent performance in an independent test set comprising 255 compounds, with prediction accuracies of 91.8 and 92.2% for Conv-CapsNet and RBM-CapsNet models, respectively. Various comparisons were also made between our models and those developed by other machine learning methods including deep belief network (DBN), convolutional neural network (CNN), multilayer perceptron (MLP), support vector machine (SVM), k-nearest neighbors (kNN), logistic regression (LR), and LightGBM, and with different training sets. All the results showed that the models by Conv-CapsNet and RBM-CapsNet are among the best classification models. Overall, the excellent performance of capsule networks achieved in this investigation highlights their potential in drug discovery-related studies.

The up-to-date and information-accurate road database plays a significant role in many applications. Recently, with the improvement in image resolutions and quality, remote sensing images have provided an important data source for road extraction tasks. However, due to the topology variations, spectral diversities, and complex scenarios, it is still challenging to realize fully automated and highly accurate road extractions from remote sensing images. This paper proposes a novel dual-attention capsule U-Net (DA-CapsUNet) for road region extraction by combining the advantageous properties of capsule representations and the powerful features of attention mechanisms. By constructing a capsule U-Net architecture, the DA-CapsUNet can extract and fuse multiscale capsule features to recover a high-resolution and semantically strong feature representation. By designing the multiscale context-augmentation and two types of feature attention modules, the DA-CapsUNet can exploit multiscale contextual properties at a high-resolution perspective and generate an informative and class-specific feature encoding. Quantitative evaluations on a large dataset showed that the DA-CapsUNet provides a competitive road extraction performance with a precision of 0.9523, a recall of 0.9486, and an F-score of 0.9504, respectively. Comparative studies with eight recently developed deep learning methods also confirmed the applicability and superiority or compatibility of the DA-CapsUNet in road extraction tasks.

Accurate crop insect pest identification in fields is useful to control pests and beneficial to agricultural yield and quality. However, it is a difficult and challenging problem due to the crop insect pests being small with various sizes, postures, shapes, and disorganized backgrounds. Multi-scale convolution-capsule network (MSCCN) is constructed for crop insect pest identification. It consists of a multi-scale convolution module, capsule network (CapsNet) module, and SoftMax classification module. Multi-scale convolution is used to extract the multi-scale discriminative features, CapsNet is employed to encode the hierarchical structure of the size-variant insect pests in the crop images, and Softmax is adopted for insect pest identification. MSCCN combines the advantages of convolutional neural network (CNN), CapsNet, and multi-scale CNN, and can learn multi-scale robust features from pest images of different shapes and sizes for pest recognition and identify various morphed pests. Experimental results on the crop pest image dataset show that this method has a good recognition rate of 91.4%.

Capsule Network (CapsNet) is a methodology with good prospects in visual tasks, since it can keep a stronger relationship of spatial information than Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs). However, the current Capsule Network do not provide performance as expected on several benchmark data sets with complex data and backgrounds. Inspired by the multiple capsules of Diverse Capsule Network (DCNet++) and the Spatial Group-wise Enhance (SGE) mechanism, we propose the Diverse Enhanced Capsule Network (DE-CapsNet), a hierarchical architecture which uses residual convolutional layers and the position-wise dot product to build diverse enhanced primary capsules with various scales of images for complex data. The architecture adopts the Sigmoid function in a dynamic routing algorithm to get a more uniform distribution of routing coefficients which obviously distinguishes the assignment probabilities between capsules. DE-CapsNet achieved state-of-the-art accuracy on Canadian Institute For Advanced Research (CIFAR-10) in the Capsule Network field and provided better performance than the ensemble of seven CapsNets on Fashion-Modified National Institue of Standards and Technology database (F-MNIST) while achieving a 50.3% reduction in the number of parameters.

Convolutional Neural Networks are a very powerful Deep Learning structure used in image processing, object classification and segmentation. They are very robust in extracting features from data and largely used in several domains. Nonetheless, they require a large number of training datasets and relations between features get lost in the Max-pooling step, which can lead to a wrong classification. Capsule Networks(CapsNets) were introduced to overcome these limitations by extracting features and their pose using capsules instead of neurons. This technique shows an impressive performance in one-dimensional, two-dimensional and three-dimensional datasets as well as in sparse datasets. In this paper, we present an initial understanding of CapsNets, their concept, structure and learning algorithm. We introduce the progress made by CapsNets from their introduction in 2011 until 2020. We compare different CapsNets series architectures to demonstrate strengths and challenges. Finally, we quote different implementations of Capsule Networks and show their robustness in a variety of domains. This survey provides the state-of-theartof Capsule Networks and allows other researchers to get a clear view of this new field. Besides, we discuss the open issues and the promising directions of future research, which may lead to a new generation of CapsNets.

This study presents a new deep learning approach based on capsule networks and ensemble learning for the detection of plant diseases. The developed method is called as multi-channel capsule network ensemble. The main innovation behind the proposed method is the use of multi-channel capsule networks, individually trained on images applied different preprocessing techniques and then combined together. In this way, the final ensemble can better detect plant diseases by making use of different attributes of the data. Our experiments carried out using a well-known data set and various state-of-the-art classification methods demonstrate that our classification approach can provide competitive advantages in terms of classification accuracy. Article Highlights An ensemble of capsule networks has been developed for the automated detection of plant diseases with high accuracies. Better accuracy has been achieved with ensemble learning compared to a single model With the proposed method, better results have been obtained compared to state-of-the-art classification methods in the literature

Convolutional Neural Networks are a very powerful Deep Learning algorithm used in image processing, object classification and segmentation. They are very robust in extracting features from data and largely used in several domains. Nonetheless, they require a large number of training datasets and relations between features get lost in the Max-pooling step, which can lead to a wrong classification. Capsule Networks (CapsNets) were introduced to overcome these limitations by extracting features and their pose using capsules instead of neurons. This technique shows an impressive performance in one-dimensional, two-dimensional and three-dimensional datasets as well as in sparse datasets. In this paper, we present an initial understanding of CapsNets, their concept, structure and learning algorithm. We introduce the progress made by CapsNets from their introduction in 2011 until 2020. We compare different CapsNets series to demonstrate strengths and challenges. Finally, we quote different implementations of Capsule Networks and show their robustness in a variety of domains. This survey provides the state-of-the-art of Capsule Networks and allows other researchers to get a clear view of this new field. Besides, we discuss the open issues and the promising directions of future research, which may lead to a new generation of CapsNets.

Using each part of the image's spatial information to generate better local details of the image is a key problem that super-resolution reconstruction has been facing. At present, mainstream super-resolution reconstruction networks are all built based on convolutional neural networks (CNN). Some of these methods based on Generative Adversarial Networks (GAN) have good performance in high-frequency details and visual effects. However, because CNN lacks the necessary attention to local spatial information, the reconstruction method is prone to problems such as excessive image brightness and unnatural pixel regions in the image. Therefore, using the capsule network's excellent perception of hierarchical spatial information and local feature relationships, the author proposes a super-resolution reconstruction based on capsule network CSRGAN. The experiment's final result shows that compared with the pure convolution method RDN, the PSNR value of CSRGAN is increased by 0.14, which is closer to the original image.

The carcinogenicity of drugs can have a serious impact on human health, so carcinogenicity testing of new compounds is very necessary before being put on the market. Currently, many methods have been used to predict the carcinogenicity of compounds. However, most methods have limited predictive power and there is still much room for improvement. In this study, we construct a deep learning model based on capsule network and attention mechanism named DCAMCP to discriminate between carcinogenic and non‐carcinogenic compounds. We train the DCAMCP on a dataset containing 1564 different compounds through their molecular fingerprints and molecular graph features. The trained model is validated by fivefold cross‐validation and external validation. DCAMCP achieves an average accuracy (ACC) of 0.718 ± 0.009, sensitivity (SE) of 0.721 ± 0.006, specificity (SP) of 0.715 ± 0.014 and area under the receiver‐operating characteristic curve (AUC) of 0.793 ± 0.012. Meanwhile, comparable results can be achieved on an external validation dataset containing 100 compounds, with an ACC of 0.750, SE of 0.778, SP of 0.727 and AUC of 0.811, which demonstrate the reliability of DCAMCP. The results indicate that our model has made progress in cancer risk assessment and could be used as an efficient tool in drug design.

Deep learning techniques have boosted the performance of hyperspectral image (HSI) classification. In particular, convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have shown superior performance to that of the conventional machine learning algorithms. Recently, a novel type of neural networks called capsule networks (CapsNets) was presented to improve the most advanced CNNs. In this paper, we present a modified two-layer CapsNet with limited training samples for HSI classification, which is inspired by the comparability and simplicity of the shallower deep learning models. The presented CapsNet is trained using two real HSI datasets, i.e., the PaviaU (PU) and SalinasA datasets, representing complex and simple datasets, respectively, and which are used to investigate the robustness or representation of every model or classifier. In addition, a comparable paradigm of network architecture design has been proposed for the comparison of CNN and CapsNet. Experiments demonstrate that CapsNet shows better accuracy and convergence behavior for the complex data than the state-of-the-art CNN. For CapsNet using the PU dataset, the Kappa coefficient, overall accuracy, and average accuracy are 0.9456, 95.90%, and 96.27%, respectively, compared to the corresponding values yielded by CNN of 0.9345, 95.11%, and 95.63%. Moreover, we observed that CapsNet has much higher confidence for the predicted probabilities. Subsequently, this finding was analyzed and discussed with probability maps and uncertainty analysis. In terms of the existing literature, CapsNet provides promising results and explicit merits in comparison with CNN and two baseline classifiers, i.e., random forests (RFs) and support vector machines (SVMs).