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Plant‐pollinator systems can exist along the gradient from extreme specialization to extreme generalization. Theoretical work predicts that high pollinator reliability may lead to specialized pollination systems, while pollinator unpredictability may promote generalized pollination systems. However, empirical tests of these predictions are constrained by the availability of accurate field observations, particularly in some groups of plants, such as trees pollinated by nocturnal animals. Plant species that face variable pollinator availability within their distributional range represent an ideal study system to address the effect of pollination predictability on the specialization level of pollination systems. This is the case of Ceiba pentandra, a tropical tree with chiropterophilic flowers. Most previous studies have described the pollination system of this tree species as mainly or exclusively bat‐pollinated. Here we studied the pollination system of C. pentandra in the Yucatan Peninsula, a region where no species of specialized nectarivorous bats occur. We assessed quantity (visitation rate) and quality pollination components (pollen deposition, fruit/seed set) for diurnal and nocturnal visitors in two different locations and years. We expected to find a generalized pollination system due to the absence of specialized pollinators. As predicted, we found five functional groups of nocturnal and diurnal pollinators. Diurnal and nocturnal pollinators contributed to a similar extent to quantity (visitation rate) and quality pollination components (fruit & seed set). However, the contribution of diurnal and nocturnal pollinators also varied either spatially or temporally. We conclude that the pollination system of C. pentandra in the Yucatan Peninsula is highly generalized and that temporal and/or spatial unpredictability in the effectiveness of its pollinators may explain this finding. The pollination system of C. pentandra was addressed. This system was highly generalized.

Data papers and open databases have revolutionized contemporary science, as they provide the long-needed incentive to collaborate in large international teams and make natural history information widely available. Nevertheless, most data papers have focused on species occurrence or abundance, whereas interactions have received much less attention. To help fill this gap, we have compiled a georeferenced data set of interactions between 93 bat species of the family Phyllostomidae (Chiroptera) and 501 plant species of 68 families. Data came from 169 studies published between 1957 and 2007 covering the entire Neotropical Region, with most records from Brazil (34.5% of all study sites), Costa Rica (16%), and Mexico (14%). Our data set includes 2571 records of frugivory (75.1% of all records) and nectarivory (24.9%). The best represented bat genera are Artibeus (28% of all records), Carollia (24%), Sturnira (10.1%), and Glossophaga (8.8%). Carollia perspicillata (187), Artibeus lituratus (125), Artibeus jamaicensis (94), Glossophaga soricina (86), and Artibeus planirostris (74) were the bat species with the broadest diets recorded based on the number of plant species. Among the plants, the best represented families were Moraceae (17%), Piperaceae (15.4%), Urticaceae (9.2%), and Solanaceae (9%).Plants of the genera Cecropia (46), Ficus (42), Piper (40), Solanum (31), and Vismia (27) exhibited the largest number of interactions. These data are stored as arrays (records, sites, and studies) organized by logical keys and rich metadata, which helped to compile the information on different ecological and geographic scales, according to how they should be used. Our data set on bat–plant interactions is by far the most extensive, both in geographic and taxonomic terms, and includes abiotic information of study sites, as well as ecological information of plants and bats. It has already facilitated several studies and we hope it will stimulate novel analyses and syntheses, in addition to pointing out important gaps in knowledge. Data are provided under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Please cite this paper when the data are used in any kind of publication related to research, outreach, and teaching activities.

Plant‐pollinator systems can exist along the gradient from extreme specialization to extreme generalization. Theoretical work predicts that high pollinator reliability may lead to specialized pollination systems, while pollinator unpredictability may promote generalized pollination systems. However, empirical tests of these predictions are constrained by the availability of accurate field observations, particularly in some groups of plants, such as trees pollinated by nocturnal animals. Plant species that face variable pollinator availability within their distributional range represent an ideal study system to address the effect of pollination predictability on the specialization level of pollination systems. This is the case of Ceiba pentandra , a tropical tree with chiropterophilic flowers. Most previous studies have described the pollination system of this tree species as mainly or exclusively bat‐pollinated. Here we studied the pollination system of C. pentandra in the Yucatan Peninsula, a region where no species of specialized nectarivorous bats occur. We assessed quantity (visitation rate) and quality pollination components (pollen deposition, fruit/seed set) for diurnal and nocturnal visitors in two different locations and years. We expected to find a generalized pollination system due to the absence of specialized pollinators. As predicted, we found five functional groups of nocturnal and diurnal pollinators. Diurnal and nocturnal pollinators contributed to a similar extent to quantity (visitation rate) and quality pollination components (fruit & seed set). However, the contribution of diurnal and nocturnal pollinators also varied either spatially or temporally. We conclude that the pollination system of C. pentandra in the Yucatan Peninsula is highly generalized and that temporal and/or spatial unpredictability in the effectiveness of its pollinators may explain this finding.

Fruit bats provide valuable pollination services to humans through a unique coevolutionary relationship with chiropterophilous plants. However, chiropterophily in the Old World and the pollination roles of large bats, such as flying foxes (Pteropus spp., Acerodon spp., Desmalopex spp.), are still poorly understood and require further elucidation. Efforts to protect these bats have been hampered by a lack of basic quantitative information on their role as ecosystem service providers. Here, we investigate the role of the locally endangered island flying fox Pteropus hypomelanus in the pollination ecology of durian (Durio zibethinus), an economically important crop in Southeast Asia. On Tioman Island, Peninsular Malaysia, we deployed 19 stations of paired infrared camera and video traps across varying heights at four individual flowering trees in a durian orchard. We detected at least nine species of animal visitors, but only bats had mutualistic interactions with durian flowers. There was a clear vertical stratification in the feeding niches of flying foxes and nectar bats, with flying foxes feeding at greater heights in the trees. Flying foxes had a positive effect on mature fruit set and therefore serve as important pollinators for durian trees. As such, semi‐wild durian trees—particularly tall ones—may be dependent on flying foxes for enhancing reproductive success. Our study is the first to quantify the role of flying foxes in durian pollination, demonstrating that these giant fruit bats may have far more important ecological, evolutionary, and economic roles than previously thought. This has important implications and can aid efforts to promote flying fox conservation, especially in Southeast Asian countries. Camera‐trapping shows that flying foxes (Pteropus hypomelanus) contribute to reproductive success of the durian (Durio zibethinus) tree. This new evidence of chiropterophily in the Palaeotropics shows how large fruit bats can also play a role in the production of economically important fruit.

Callianthe sellowiana is a high‐altitude species endemic to the Atlantic Forest that exhibits floral traits overlapping between ornithophily (hummingbird pollination) and chiropterophily (bat pollination), with highly variable flower color and shape and a yet unstudied reproductive system. We conducted observations and experiments in the upper montane Brazilian Atlantic Forest (2000 m a.s.l.), which revealed that both bat and hummingbird pollinators contribute similarly to fruit and seed set, with no significant difference between diurnal and nocturnal exclusion treatments. However, combined pollination yielded higher reproductive success, indicating functional complementarity and equal pollination effectiveness. Floral traits match both pollinators, with wider corollas at night aiding bat access and enhancing acoustic signals and narrower corollas during the day facilitating hummingbird pollination. Spectral analyses revealed low UV reflectance with a peak in red wavelengths, and for most phenotypes high green reflectance, matching both bat and hummingbird visual systems. While hummingbird visitation remained stable across flowering seasons, bat visitation was highly variable, suggesting that C. sellowiana maintains a stable bimodal pollination strategy. Furthermore, pollen tube growth experiments showed that small amounts of cross‐pollen are sufficient to promote successful pollen tube development, even in the presence of self‐pollen. These findings reveal a strategy that may mitigate self‐pollen interference in a self‐incompatible species. Our results highlight the ecological importance of functional and temporal complementarity in bimodal pollination systems and underscore how mixed pollination strategies may enhance reproductive success and resilience in diverse pollinator environments. We investigated the reproductive biology of Callianthe sellowiana, a high‐altitude Atlantic Forest species with traits associated with both bat and hummingbird pollination. Our results show that both pollinator groups are equally effective, and reproductive success is enhanced when both are present, highlighting the functional and temporal complementarity of this stable bimodal system.

Pollen dispersal is a key driver of gene flow in plant populations, shaping their spatial genetic structure (SGS). In tropical forests, plant‐pollinator interactions vary across vertical strata due to differences in microclimate, resource availability, and foraging behavior. Bats are an important tropical pollinator group and have been observed to exhibit vertical stratification in their foraging activity, with interaction frequencies differing across forest layers. They are highly mobile and expected to transport pollen over long distances; however, their actual contribution to gene flow has rarely been investigated. Marcgravia longifolia, a bat‐pollinated Neotropical liana, offers a unique system for studying gene flow across forest strata. Unlike most other plant species, M. longifolia produces flowers from the forest floor to the canopy, allowing us to study how bat pollination differs across strata. This study examines pollen dispersal distances, the vertical stratification of gene flow, and SGS in M. longifolia at a 100 ha study site in western Amazonia. Pollen dispersal distances were up to 1350 m, with longer distances observed in the understory and midstory, where bat foraging activity is more frequent. We detected no SGS, suggesting extensive gene flow facilitated by bat pollination across forest strata. These findings underscore the critical role of bats in shaping plant genetic structure and demonstrate how vertical forest stratification influences gene flow in tropical ecosystems. RESUMEN La dispersión del polen es un factor clave del flujo génico en las poblaciones de plantas, dando forma a su estructura genética espacial (SGS). En los bosques tropicales, las interacciones planta‐polinizador varían a lo largo de los estratos verticales debido a diferencias en el microclima, la disponibilidad de recursos y el comportamiento de forrajeo. Los murciélagos son un grupo de polinizadores importante en los trópicos y se ha observado que presentan una estratificación vertical en su actividad de forrajeo, con frecuencias de interacción que difieren entre los distintos estratos del bosque. Son altamente móviles y se espera que transporten polen a largas distancias; aunque su contribución real al flujo génico ha sido raramente investigada. Marcgravia longifolia, una liana neotropical polinizada por murciélagos, ofrece un sistema único para estudiar el flujo génico a través de los estratos del bosque. A diferencia de la mayoría de las especies de plantas, M. longifolia produce flores desde el suelo del bosque hasta el dosel, lo que permite estudiar cómo varía la polinización por murciélagos en los distintos niveles. Este estudio examina las distancias de dispersión del polen, la estratificación vertical del flujo génico y la SGS en M. longifolia en un sitio de estudio de 100 hectáreas en la Amazonía occidental. Las distancias de dispersión del polen alcanzaron hasta 1350 metros, observándose distancias mayores en el sotobosque y el estrato medio, donde la actividad de forrajeo de los murciélagos es más frecuente. No se detectó SGS, lo que sugiere un flujo génico extenso facilitado por la polinización por murciélagos a través de los estratos del bosque. Estos resultados destacan el papel crucial de los murciélagos en la formación de la estructura genética de las plantas y demuestran cómo la estratificación vertical de los bosques influye en el flujo génico en los ecosistemas tropicales. This study investigates pollen dispersal, vertical stratification of gene flow, and spatial genetic structure in the bat‐pollinated liana Marcgravia longifolia in a western Amazonian forest. Flowers are produced from the forest floor to the canopy, allowing analysis of pollination across strata. Results show that bats disperse pollen up to 1350 m, especially in lower forest layers, and facilitate extensive gene flow, highlighting their role in maintaining genetic connectivity in vertically structured tropical ecosystems.

The large majority of angiosperm species depend on animals for pollination, including many agricultural crops, and plant-pollinator interactions have been extensively studied. However, not all floral visitors actually transfer pollen, and efforts to distinguish true pollinators from mere visitors are particularly scarce among the bat pollination literature. To determine whether Old World bat species are equally effective pollinators in mixed-agricultural areas of southern Thailand, we examined six night-blooming plant taxa and quantified pollinator importance (PI) of seven common nectarivorous bat species. PI was calculated as the product of nightly bat visitation rate (obtained from mist-netting data) and pollen transfer efficiency (estimated from bat pollen loads). We found that PI varied by both bat species and plant species. In general, the nectar-specialist bat species were more important pollinators, yet their order of importance differed across our focal plant species. In addition, PI was dictated more by pollen transfer effectiveness than visitation rate. Our findings highlight the importance of Old World bat pollinators within southern Thailand’s mixed-agricultural landscape and illustrate how seemingly similar floral visitors can have very different contributions toward plant pollination success.

Nectarivorous bats have evolved various adaptations to feeding from flowers, such as long, extensible tongues and the ability to hover. The champion of tongue length, Anoura fistulata, can extend its tongue to 150% of its body length, yet little is known about its interactions with flowers in the wild. Here we analyzed the diet of A. fistulata and co‐occurring nectar bats in eight sites across Ecuador. Results demonstrate that, despite its phenotypic specialization, A. fistulata is no more ecologically specialized in its dietary breadth than co‐occurring nectar bats. However, it prefers deeper flowers, and is the sole visitor to two species (Centropogon nigricans and Marcgravia williamsii) whose extremely deep flowers make their nectar inaccessible to other bats. Furthermore, A. fistulata only occurred in sites with at least one flower deeper than the tongue length of other nectar bats, suggesting it needs such a guaranteed nectar source to maintain a population. Finally, we found strong covariation across sites between the local tongue length of A. fistulata and the depth of the deepest flowers it visits. This suggests that the coevolutionary race that selected for the exceptional tongue length of this bat over time is also playing out in a geographic mosaic across space.

Several barriers contribute to reproductive isolation between plant species, which can be classified as pre- or post-pollination. Understanding the strength of these barriers could clarify the factors that maintain reproductive isolation and thus species integrity. In this study, we quantified reproductive isolation between two bat-pollinated co-occurring Bauhinia species (B. acuruana and B. pentandra) with similar flower morphology. Over the course of 18 months, we assessed reproductive isolation between these two Bauhinia species by quantifying the individual strengths and absolute contributions of five pre- and post- pollination barriers. Our data showed that both species are completely isolated in their reproduction by a combination of several barriers. Although they co-occur in a few populations, we found a high degree of geographic isolation between them. And although their flowering periods overlap, there is a significant difference in flowering peaks. Both species have the same pollinating bats, but the interspecific transfer of pollen between the plant species may be reduced due to the different length of the flower stamens, resulting in different pollen deposition on the bats’ bodies. We have documented complete incompatibility between taxa and conclude that pre- and post-pollination barriers are important factors in preventing gene flow, even in contact zones between these two species of Bauhinia. We highlight that our work is the first study to use methods to estimate the strength of reproductive isolation barriers between bat-pollinated species.

Cactaceae has many vertebrate-pollinated species, and in the subtribe Cereinae, several genera are indicated as being pollinated by bats. In this subtribe, we observed phenotypic specialization in floral morphological attributes associated with chiropterophily, allowing high precision in the determination of this pollination system. However, in loco pollination records of bats have been confirmed only in a few species. In this context, using a morphological approach, we studied the floral biology of 14 columnar cacti of Cereeae-Cereinae with emphasis on species with chiropterophilous attributes and confirmed the role of bats specialized in nectar consumption as pollinators of these taxa. The studied taxa have similarities in their floral bauplan, observed by analysing the overlap in the floral morphospace. The length and opening of the floral tube are important characteristics for pollen deposition. Approximately 156 visits by bats of the subfamilies Glossophaginae and Lonchophyllinae were observed among the studied taxa. Chiropterophily is the prevalent pollination system among Cereinae, and hereby, we verified this system in five of its genera. There is, however, much variation between diurnal and nocturnal systems within this subtribe, and variation among genera and within species of a given genus may reflect the evolutive pathways, this being worthy of future studies.