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In the classical period, the scholars built the division of science into two groups namely, the science of religion called “al-‘ulûm al-dîniyah”, and the science of non-religious or “al-‘ulûm al-dunyawiyah”. In the science of religion, they have the science of exegesis, the science of ḥ adîth, the science of kalâm, the science of fiqh, and the science of tasawuf. While on non-religious sciences, they have history, medicine, astronomy, chemistry, mathematics, optic, physics, cosmography, and many more. On that time, the scholars were imbued with high appreciation of tought, so they succeeded in making rapid progress in various fields of life, including the field of knowledge and philosophy. The peak of progress occurred at the time of the ‘Abbâsids, the previous Khalîfah al-Ma’mûn. In the view of Greek or Hellenic thought there were two expert views, rejecting Hellenism or accepting it. The differences lied in the views of Islam, Islam as ‘aqîdah (creed) and Islam as a civilization. Those who reject Hellenism view Islam as a creed with revelation as the source of knowledge. While those who accept Hellenism view Islam as not a creed, but Islam as civilization.

How well integrated were Jews in the Mediterranean society controlled by ancient Rome? The Torah's laws seem to constitute a rejection of the reciprocity-based social dependency and emphasis on honor that were customary in the ancient Mediterranean world. But were Jews really a people apart, and outside of this broadly shared culture? Were the Jews a Mediterranean Society? argues that Jewish social relations in antiquity were animated by a core tension between biblical solidarity and exchange-based social values such as patronage, vassalage, formal friendship, and debt slavery. Seth Schwartz's examinations of the Wisdom of Ben Sira, the writings of Josephus, and the Palestinian Talmud reveal that Jews were more deeply implicated in Roman and Mediterranean bonds of reciprocity and honor than is commonly assumed. Schwartz demonstrates how Ben Sira juxtaposes exhortations to biblical piety with hard-headed and seemingly contradictory advice about coping with the dangers of social relations with non-Jews; how Josephus describes Jews as essentially countercultural; yet how the Talmudic rabbis assume Jews have completely internalized Roman norms at the same time as the rabbis seek to arouse resistance to those norms, even if it is only symbolic.

Jewish and Christian authors of the High Middle Ages not infrequently came into dialogue or conflict with each other over traditions drawn from ancient writings outside of the bible. Circulating in Hebrew and Latin translations, these included the two independent versions of the Testament of Naphtali in which the patriarch has a vision of the Diaspora, a shipwreck that scatters the twelve tribes. The Christian narrative is linear and ends in salvation; the Jewish narrative is circular and pessimistic. For Ruth Nisse, this is an emblematic text that illuminates relationships between interpretation, translation, and survival. In Nisse's account, extrabiblical literature encompasses not only the historical works of Flavius Josephus but also some of the more ingenious medieval Hebrew imaginative texts, Aesop's fables and the Aeneid. The Latin epic tradition, as it happens, includes a fascinating Hebrew intervention. While Christian-Jewish relations in medieval England and Northern France are often associated with persecutions of Jews in the wake of the Crusades and Christian polemics against Judaism, the period also saw a growing interest in language study and translation in both communities. These noncanonical texts and their afterlives provided Jews and Christians alike with resources of fiction that they used to reconsider boundaries of doctrine and interpretation. Among the works that Nisse takes as exemplary of this medieval moment are the Book of Yosippon, a tenth-century Hebrew adaptation of Josephus with a wide circulation and influence in the later middle ages, and the second-century romance of Aseneth about the religious conversion of Joseph's Egyptian wife. Yosippon gave Jews a new discourse of martyrdom in its narrative of the fall of Jerusalem, and at the same time it offered access to the classical historical models being used by their Christian contemporaries. Aseneth provided its new audience of medieval monks with a way to reimagine the troubling consequences of unwilling Jewish converts.

22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11.2DS) is a disorder caused by the segmental deletion of human chromosome 22. This chromosomal deletion is known as high genetic risk factors for various psychiatric disorders. The different deletion types are identified in 22q11.2DS patients, including the most common 3.0-Mb deletion, and the less-frequent 1.5-Mb and 1.4-Mb deletions. In previous animal studies of psychiatric disorders associated with 22q11.2DS mainly focused on the 1.5-Mb deletion and model mice mimicking the human 1.5-Mb deletion have been established with diverse genetic backgrounds, which resulted in the contradictory phenotypes. On the other hand, the contribution of the genes in 1.4-Mb region to psychiatric disorders is poorly understood. In this study, we generated two mouse lines that reproduced the 1.4-Mb and 1.5-Mb deletions of 22q11.2DS [ Del(1.4 Mb)/ + and Del(1.5 Mb)/ +] on the pure C57BL/6N genetic background. These mutant mice were analyzed comprehensively by behavioral tests, such as measurement of locomotor activity, sociability, prepulse inhibition and fear-conditioning memory. Del(1.4 Mb)/ + mice displayed decreased locomotor activity, but no abnormalities were observed in all other behavioral tests. Del(1.5 Mb)/ + mice showed reduction of prepulse inhibition and impairment of contextual- and cued-dependent fear memory, which is consistent with previous reports. Furthermore, apparently intact social recognition in Del(1.4 Mb)/ + and Del(1.5 Mb)/ + mice suggests that the impaired social recognition observed in Del(3.0 Mb)/ + mice mimicking the human 3.0-Mb deletion requires mutations both in 1.4-Mb and 1.5 Mb regions. Our previous study has shown that Del(3.0 Mb)/ + mice presented disturbance of behavioral circadian rhythm. Therefore, we further evaluated sleep/wakefulness cycles in Del(3.0 Mb)/ + mice by electroencephalogram (EEG) and electromyogram (EMG) recording. EEG/EMG analysis revealed the disturbed wakefulness and non-rapid eye moving sleep (NREMS) cycles in Del(3.0 Mb)/ + mice, suggesting that Del(3.0 Mb)/ + mice may be unable to maintain their wakefulness. Together, our mouse models deepen our understanding of genetic contributions to schizophrenic phenotypes related to 22q11.2DS.

Reports of unrelated individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and similar clinical features having overlapping de novo interstitial deletions at 2p15–p16.1 suggest that this region harbors a gene(s) important to the development of autism. We molecularly characterized two such deletions, selecting two genes in this region, exportin 1 ( XPO1 ) and orthodenticle homolog 1 ( OTX1 ) for association studies in three North American cohorts (Autism Spectrum Disorder – Canadian American Research Consortium (ASD–CARC), New York, and Autism Genetic Resource Exchange (AGRE)) and one Italian cohort (Società Italiana per la Ricerca e la Formazione sull’Autismo (SIRFA)) of families with ASD. In XPO1 , rs6735330 was associated with autism in all four cohorts ( P <0.05), being significant in ASD–CARC cohorts ( P -value following false discovery rate correction for multiple testing ( P FDR )=1.29 × 10 −5 ), the AGRE cohort ( P FDR =0.0011) and the combined families ( P FDR =2.34 × 10 −9 ). Similarly, in OTX1 , rs2018650 and rs13000344 were associated with autism in ASD–CARC cohorts ( P FDR =8.65 × 10 −7 and 6.07 × 10 5 , respectively), AGRE cohort ( P FDR =0.0034 and 0.015, respectively) and the combined families ( P FDR =2.34 × 10 −9 and 0.00017, respectively); associations were marginal or insignificant in the New York and SIRFA cohorts. A significant association ( P FDR =2.63 × 10 −11 ) was found for the rs2018650G–rs13000344C haplotype. The above three SNPs were associated with severity of social interaction and verbal communication deficits and repetitive behaviors ( P -values <0.01). No additional deletions were identified following screening of 798 ASD individuals. Our results indicate that deletion 2p15–p16.1 is not commonly associated with idiopathic ASD, but represents a novel contiguous gene syndrome associated with a constellation of phenotypic features (autism, intellectual disability, craniofacial/CNS dysmorphology), and that XPO1 and OXT1 may contribute to ASD in 2p15–p16.1 deletion cases and non-deletion cases of ASD mapping to this chromosome region.

Although symbolic interaction (Mead, 1934; Blumer, 1969) generally is envisioned as a unique twentieth century product of a democratic society, the roots of this approach to the study of human group life run much deeper. Thus, as a sociological extension of American pragmatist philosophy, the conceptual foundations of what has become known as symbolic interaction can be traced back to classic Greek scholarship (ca. 700–300BCE) as, relatedly, can interactionist methodology (i.e., ethnographic inquiry) and the interactionist quest to articulate basic conceptual features of human association. Further, whereas symbolic interaction is typically viewed as a highly situated or localized approach to the study of human group life, interactionism offers extended potential for transhistorical and transcultural comparative analysis. As well, although much overlooked by those in the social sciences, the classical Greek literature (along with various other interim sources) provides an exceptionally vital set of resources for scholars studying human group life in more sustained comparative-analytic terms. By resisting the temptation to assume that newer is better, we may in the process of examining our own intellectual heritage, arrive at a more adequate, pragmatist informed social science with which to approach the future.

Americans are a people captivated by freedom. Few agree, however, about what freedom means. At times, freedom challenges injustice. At other times, freedom justifies the way things are. Freedom fights for the laborer and defends corporations from regulation. Freedom protects the traditional family and protests against sexual restrictions. Freedom decries discrimination and insists that none exists. Freedom invites foreigners to American shores and restricts their entry. Freedom longs for a Christian nation and welcomes religious diversity. Freedom calls for more and less government. Freedom is cherished by sinners and saints, immigrants and nativists, slaves and slaveholders, corporations and employees. Many

One of the consequences of Christianity’s emergence in the fourth century as an imperial religion was that the meanings attached tooikonomiain the Christian mind became commonly sensed by the inhabitants of the empire. The shift in the prevailing meaning of the economy was accompanied by changes in its relations with philosophical life, the legal framework, and politics. These changes are the focus of the subsequent three chapters: chapter 3 traces the ways in which philosophical life was contained in the economy, chapter 4 presents the ways in which the relations between economy and politics were modeled in patristic

Sequitur de actione voluntatis, quae est velle sive amare. Circa quam quaeruntur quattuor.|Primo de ipsa actione voluntatis, quae est velle vel amare secundum se. Secundo de ipsa in comparatione ad actionem intellectus, quae est intelligere. Et quia in altera illarum vel in ambabus consistit Dei beatitudo, ideo tertio quaeretur de Dei beatitudine. Et quia beatitudini adnexa est delectatio, ideo quarto quaeretur de Dei delectatione. Circa primum istorum quaeruntur quinque: primum, si Deus sit volens; secundum, si quilibet actus eius volendi sit eiusdem rationis; tertium, si Deus velit se ipsum; quartum, si actus volendi se ipsum principaliter terminetur ad essentiam vel

Sequitur de actione voluntatis, quae est velle sive amare. Circa quam quaeruntur quattuor.|Primo de ipsa actione voluntatis, quae est velle vel amare secundum se. Secundo de ipsa in comparatione ad actionem intellectus, quae est intelligere. Et quia in altera illarum vel in ambabus consistit Dei beatitudo, ideo tertio quaeretur de Dei beatitudine. Et quia beatitudini adnexa est delectatio, ideo quarto quaeretur de Dei delectatione. Circa primum istorum quaeruntur quinque: primum, si Deus sit volens; secundum, si quilibet actus eius volendi sit eiusdem rationis; tertium, si Deus velit se ipsum; quartum, si actus volendi se ipsum principaliter terminetur ad essentiam vel