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The importance of community-based forest management (hereafter, CBFM) is drawing attention to forest policies in finding solutions for deforestation and importantly to also understand the basis of people’s involvement. Focusing on the latter, the study presented here targets a regional CBFM (Van (forest) Panchayat; hereafter, VP) at the village level in Uttarakhand, India and looks into characteristics and critical aspect of people’s participation. Participatory observations were conducted in four selected villages, followed by structured interviews with 113 of a total of 131 households and semi-structured interviews with additional 28 female villagers. Some specific findings were (a) the VP members were mostly involved in forest-related activities, e.g., plantation, forest patrols, (b) a greater use of firewood by the management committee (hereafter, MC) where most members were from the higher-caste, and (c) most of the VP forest users were women; however, few women members were involved in decision-making, as they were mostly fixed members and they had not voluntarily chosen their positions. In the above context, it implied a limited participation of women in the decision-making process, i.e., no or little involvement in the management plan by the main VP forest users. Results concluded three stages of local peoples’ participation in forest management: “participation in activities”, “participation in decision-making” and “participation in management plan creation”. In summary, what our study shows is that participation by the VP members in CBFM activities was easy. The most difficult aspect related to the participation of female members was the decision-making process in each VPMC investigated.

Tropical forests are crucial in terms of biodiversity and ecosystem services, but at the same time, they are major sources of revenue and provide livelihoods for forest‐dependent people. Hopes for the simultaneous achievement of conservation goals and poverty alleviation are therefore increasingly placed on forests used for timber extraction. Most timber exploitation is carried out unsustainably, which causes forest degradation. Two important mechanisms have emerged to promote sustainable forest management: certification and community‐based forest management (CFM). We synthesize the published information about how forest certification and CFM perform in terms of environmental, social, and economic variables. With the caveat that very few published studies meet the standards for formal impact evaluation, we found that certification has substantial environmental benefits, typically achieved at a cost of reduced short‐term financial profit, and accompanied by some improvement to the welfare of neighboring communities. We found that the economic and environmental benefits of CFM are understudied, but that the social impacts are controversial, with both positive and negative changes reported. We identify the trade‐offs that likely caused these conflicting results and that, if addressed, would help both CFM and certification deliver the hoped‐for benefits.

Societal Impact Statement Large areas of tropical forest are degraded. While global tree cover is being mapped with increasing accuracy from space, much less is known about the quality of that tree cover. Here we present a field protocol for rapid assessments of forest condition. Using extensive field data from Tanzania, we show that a focus on remotely‐sensed deforestation would not detect significant reductions in forest quality. Radar‐based remote sensing of degradation had good agreement with the ground data, but the ground surveys provided more insights into the nature and drivers of degradation. We recommend the combined use of rapid field assessments and remote sensing to provide an early warning, and to allow timely and appropriately targeted conservation and policy responses. Summary Tropical forest degradation is widely recognised as a driver of biodiversity loss and a major source of carbon emissions. However, in contrast to deforestation, more gradual changes from degradation are challenging to detect, quantify and monitor. Here, we present a field protocol for rapid, area‐standardised quantifications of forest condition, which can also be implemented by non‐specialists. Using the example of threatened high‐biodiversity forests in Tanzania, we analyse and predict degradation based on this method. We also compare the field data to optical and radar remote‐sensing datasets, thereby conducting a large‐scale, independent test of the ability of these products to map degradation in East Africa from space. Our field data consist of 551 ‘degradation’ transects collected between 1996 and 2010, covering >600 ha across 86 forests in the Eastern Arc Mountains and coastal forests. Degradation was widespread, with over one‐third of the study forests—mostly protected areas—having more than 10% of their trees cut. Commonly used optical remote‐sensing maps of complete tree cover loss only detected severe impacts (≥25% of trees cut), that is, a focus on remotely‐sensed deforestation would have significantly underestimated carbon emissions and declines in forest quality. Radar‐based maps detected even low impacts (<5% of trees cut) in ~90% of cases. The field data additionally differentiated types and drivers of harvesting, with spatial patterns suggesting that logging and charcoal production were mainly driven by demand from major cities. Rapid degradation surveys and radar remote sensing can provide an early warning and guide appropriate conservation and policy responses. This is particularly important in areas where forest degradation is more widespread than deforestation, such as in eastern and southern Africa. Large areas of tropical forest are degraded. While global tree cover is being mapped with increasing accuracy from space, much less is known about the quality of that tree cover. Here we present a field protocol for rapid assessments of forest condition. Using extensive field data from Tanzania, we show that a focus on remotely‐sensed deforestation would not detect significant reductions in forest quality. Radar‐based remote sensing of degradation had good agreement with the ground data, but the ground surveys provided more insights into the nature and drivers of degradation. We recommend the combined use of rapid field assessments and remote sensing to provide an early warning, and to allow timely and appropriately targeted conservation and policy responses.

The Indonesian government has scaled up its devolution of forest management to local communities in the form of social forestry, with the aim of improving forest management while delivering nature‐based well‐being (including livelihood) benefits for local communities. We investigate the varied well‐being impacts of social forestry management rights—an expression of human–nature relationships—and how these are distributed among different social groups in Indonesia. In a study conducted in four different village locations with social forestry management right permits in Indonesia, we employed a mixed methods approach comprising interviews (semi‐structured and life story) (n = 80), focus group discussions (in‐person and online) (n = 44) and a survey of 100 households in each site (n = 400). We identified local conceptualizations of, and priorities for, well‐being. Our findings indicate that access to land and livelihood capitals that support productive and diverse livelihoods is central to well‐being. Good social relations are crucial for securing and utilising land to sustain a livelihood, and in turn, to achieve a good life. Material and social elements underpin other interconnected well‐being dimensions, including being able to perform religious pilgrimages, contribute to cultural and spiritual practices and provide security for one's children's future. Further, we found that social forestry secured land access, improved access to agricultural inputs and information, and diversified livelihoods of those who knew they were involved in social forestry—aligning particularly with material well‐being priorities valued locally. However, disparities in access to information meant that most villagers (67%) in areas granted social forestry permits knew little about the scheme. Active social forestry participants were from more well‐off households, while many less privileged people faced exclusions to participation and benefits. Unclear institutional processes, exclusionary enrolment practices and limited access to information hindered social forestry's potential to contribute to well‐being more broadly, risking increasing social inequalities locally. Policy implications: Our findings suggest the need for measures to ensure well‐being benefits from social forestry are distributed equitably. This is essential to avoid exacerbating social inequalities and to foster greater support for forest protection. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. Abstrak Pemerintah Indonesia telah memperluas skema pemberian hak pengelolaan hutan kepada komunitas lokal dalam bentuk perhutanan sosial, dengan tujuan memperbaiki pengelolaan hutan sekaligus memberikan manfaat kesejahteraan berbasis keberlanjutan alam (termasuk mata pencaharian) bagi masyarakat setempat. Kami, tim peneliti, menyelidiki berbagi dampak kesejahteraan dari hak pengelolaan perhutanan sosial – sebagai bentuk ekspresi hubungan antara manusia dan alam – serta bagaimana dampak‐dampak tersebut terdistribusi di antara berbagai kelompok sosial yang berbeda di Indonesia. Dalam studi yang dilakukan di empat lokasi desa yang memiliki izin hak pengelolaan perhutanan sosial di Indonesia, kami menggunakan pendekatan metode penelitian campuran yang mencakup wawancara (semi‐terstruktur dan kisah hidup) (n = 80), diskusi kelompok terarah (tatap muka dan daring) (n = 44), serta survei terhadap 100 rumah tangga di setiap lokasi (n = 400). Kami mengidentifikasi bagaimana masyarakat lokal memaknai dan memprioritaskan kesejahteraan. Temuan kami menunjukkan bahwa akses terhadap lahan serta modal penghidupan yang mendukung mata pencaharian yang produktif dan beragam merupakan aspek utama dari kesejahteraan. Hubungan sosial yang baik sangat penting untuk memperoleh dan memanfaatkan lahan dalam rangka menopang penghidupan, yang pada gilirannya menunjang kehidupan yang baik. Elemen material dan sosial juga menopang dimensi kesejahteraan lainnya yang saling terkait, termasuk kemampuan untuk menjalankan ibadah sesuai agama dan kepercayaan, berkontribusi dalam praktik budaya dan spiritual, serta memberikan jaminan bagi masa depan anak‐anak. Lebih lanjut, kami menemukan bahwa perhutanan sosial telah meningkatkan keamanan akses terhadap lahan, memperbaiki akses terhadap input pertanian dan informasi, serta mendiversifikasi mata pencaharian bagi mereka yang mengetahui secara sadar bahwa mereka terlibat dalam perhutanan sosial – khususnya yang selaras dengan prioritas kesejahteraan material yang dinilai penting oleh masyarakat lokal. Namun, kesenjangan dalam akses terhadap informasi menyebabkan sebagian besar warga desa (67%) di daerah yang telah menerima izin perhutanan sosial memiliki pengetahuan yang minim terhadap skema tersebut. Peserta aktif perhutanan sosial umumnya berasal dari rumah tangga yang lebih sejahtera, sementara banyak kelompok yang kurang beruntung menghadapi berbagai bentuk pengecualian dalam hal partisipasi dan manfaat. Proses kelembagaan yang kurang jelas, praktik pendaftaran yang eksklusif, serta akses informasi yang terbatas menghambat potensi perhutanan sosial dalam meningkatkan kesejahteraan secara lebih luas di antara semua kelompok social, dan berisiko memperparah ketimpangan sosial di tingkat lokal. Implikasi kebijakan: Temuan kami menunjukkan perlunya langkah‐langkah untuk memastikan manfaat kesejahteraan dari perhutanan sosial terdistribusi secara adil. Hal ini penting untuk mencegah meningkatnya ketimpangan sosial dan untuk mendorong dukungan yang lebih besar terhadap perlindungan hutan. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Community based forest management (CBFM) has been implemented in Africa since the 1980s. Three main objectives, which are currently part of the sustainable development goals (SDGs), underlie the formation of CBFM. They are (1) enhancing community engagement in forest management, (2) reducing rural poverty, and (3) promoting forest resources conservation. We examine CBFM frameworks in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and CBFM schemes’ contribution to selected sustainable development goals relevant to the forestry sector. Five SSA countries, Ethiopia, Kenya, Cameroon, Uganda, and Tanzania were chosen for the study because of their long-term engagement in CBFM. The analysis was based on desk review of literature from Web of Science™, Scopus, and Google Scholar™, and interviews with individuals representing institutions leading CBFM implementation in the countries selected. We found countries were strong in devising policy and legal provisions and articulating formalities for establishing CBFM. Major weaknesses were observed in monitoring CBFM performance, benefit sharing, and product management. The analysis of CBFM schemes’ contribution to SDGs was largely positive, though with several cases of no considerable impact and few reports of negative impacts. The contributions of CBFM schemes to SDGs was constrained by weaknesses in the CBFM frameworks. Enhancing CBFM schemes contribution to SDGs requires addressing the major weaknesses observed in the CBFM frameworks.

Data gathered through community-based forest monitoring (CBFM) programs may be as accurate as those gathered by professional scientists, but acquired at a much lower cost and capable of providing more detailed data about the occurrence, extent and drivers of forest loss, degradation and regrowth at the community scale. In addition, CBFM enables greater survey repeatability. Therefore, CBFM should be a fundamental component of national forest monitoring systems and programs to measure, report and verify (MRV) REDD+ activities. To contribute to the development of more effective approaches to CBFM, in this paper we assess: (1) the feasibility of using small, low-cost drones (i.e., remotely piloted aerial vehicles) in CBFM programs; (2) their potential advantages and disadvantages for communities, partner organizations and forest data end-users; and (3) to what extent their utilization, coupled with ground surveys and local ecological knowledge, would improve tropical forest monitoring. To do so, we reviewed the existing literature regarding environmental applications of drones, including forest monitoring, and drew on our own firsthand experience flying small drones to map and monitor tropical forests and training people to operate them. We believe that the utilization of small drones can enhance CBFM and that this approach is feasible in many locations throughout the tropics if some degree of external assistance and funding is provided to communities. We suggest that the use of small drones can help tropical communities to better manage and conserve their forests whilst benefiting partner organizations, governments and forest data end-users, particularly those engaged in forestry, biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation projects such as REDD+.

Community forestry refers to forest management that has ecological sustainability and local community benefits as central goals, with some degree of responsibility and authority for forest management formally vested in the community. This review provides an overview of where the field of community forestry is today. We describe four case examples from the Americas: Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Bolivia. We also identify five hypotheses embedded in the concept of community forestry and examine the evidence supporting them. We conclude that community forestry holds promise as a viable approach to forest conservation and community development. Major gaps remain, however, between community forestry in theory and in practice. For example, devolution of forest management authority from states to communities has been partial and disappointing, and local control over forest management appears to have more ecological than socioeconomic benefits. We suggest ways that anthropologists can contribute to the field.

Contemporary evaluations of outcomes in human-managed systems have been constrained by a lack of counterfactual analysis. Community forestry (CF), a widely adopted strategy to achieve both conservation and management in coupled human-environment systems, is no exception, and counterfactual analysis would greatly enhance CF research. We used a mixed method approach incorporating quantification of deforestation and forest regrowth rates, synthetic control analysis, and focus groups discussions to evaluate mangrove CF outcomes in the Ayeyarwady Delta, Myanmar, from to 1990–2021. CF resulted in an overall increase in net forest gain and reduction in net forest loss across sites. More than two-thirds of CF sites had superior outcomes relative to synthetic controls for at least one metric (deforestation or forest regrowth); however, CF tended to perform better for only one outcome while avoiding underperformance in the other. The annual rate of forest regrowth in CFs accelerated beginning three years prior to certification and peaked two years after certification, likely related to pre-certification engagement with the Forest Department or non-government organizations. Moreover, control sites near CFs experienced more rapid forest regrowth than controls further from CFs, suggesting spillover effects. The predominant challenge facing successful CF management was illegal extraction and overharvesting, and poor performing CFs experienced a complex array of challenges facing forest regrowth, likely related to the private nature of individual land claims within the CFs. Most supporting factors for CF were related to community management capacity, strongly indicating a need for extended close engagement with competent government and non-government actors to develop long-term management and governance capacities, which are sustainably funded. Our mixed-method approach can be replicated in other human-managed systems to evaluate the biophysical impacts of policies and gain insights into the underlying drivers of outcomes.

The community forests (CF) in Nepal, facilitated by Community Forest User Groups (CFUGs), is widely recognized as an effective model of community-based forest management. Despite this recognition, there is a notable lack of comprehensive studies assessing the performance of CFUGs in sustaining community forests. Addressing this gap, this study examined twenty-two indicators across five performance criteria, such as user group management, forest management, financial management, livelihood management, and collaboration and networking management, within four CFUGs in central Nepal. Data were collected through household surveys (n = 275) and focus group discussions (n = 4), and indicators of performance criteria were assessed using a Likert scale. Reliability was measured using the coefficient of Cronbach’s alpha. ANOVA was employed to compare mean performance criteria across the four CFUGs, providing an evaluative perspective on overall CFUG performance. The findings underscored collaboration and networking management as high performers, showing an index value of 0.71, while user group management exhibited moderate performance with an index value of 0.56, alongside other moderately performing criteria. Noteworthy disparities were evident across the four performance criteria (p < 0.01), with the exception of collaboration and network management. Approximately 55% of the indicators were rated low to moderate, revealing CFUGs’ deficiencies in regular functions, limited uptake of adaptive and market-oriented management practices, minimal contributions to biodiversity conservation, insufficient capacity for forest revenue generation and mobilization, and restricted income generation and benefit-sharing with communities. The absence of timely and pertinent actions further stifled interaction between CFUGs and community forests, undermining the potential for revenue generation, job creation, and collective actions essential for productive community forest management. Prioritization of the indicators based on the performance index value offers critical policy direction to ensure CFUG sustainability and augment participatory management of common pool resources. Strategies to address identified weaknesses and build on strengths are essential for the success of Nepal’s community forests.

This study evaluates the impact of a participatory forest management (PFM) program on forest structure and cover change in the Natural Forest, Ethiopia. A comparison of current vegetation data with baseline information collected by Woreda agricultural experts was conducted to assess structural and coverage changes. Vegetation data were gathered from 44 plots, each measuring 20 m × 20 m, to capture tree and shrub density, height, and diameter distributions. Additionally, cloud-free Landsat-7 and Landsat-8 images from 2012 and 2021 were analyzed to determine forest cover change over time. Data analysis included computation of vegetation metrics such as stem density, height, and diameter classes, with t-tests applied to compare these variables before and after PFM implementation. Results indicate that the forest displays a healthy, inverted ‘J’ shape population structure, which signifies robust regeneration with higher densities in lower diameter and height classes. Forest and shrub land cover expanded slightly after the PFM program, with increases of 0.69 % and 0.27 %, respectively. This suggests that PFM positively impacts both the structural health and coverage of the forest by promoting regeneration and conserving existing cover. Overall, this study concludes that PFM contributes to the stability and improvement of forest ecosystems in the region. Expanding PFM initiatives to neighboring forests could further enhance forest conservation and provide sustainable benefits to local communities. This research underscores the effectiveness of participatory approaches in managing forest resources for both ecological and social benefits.